Medienberichterstattung beeinflusst und prägt die Sichtweise auf andere Länder und ihre Bewohner*innen. Immer wieder beschäftigen sich daher Wissenschaftler*innen mit der Frage, welche Bilder und Bewertungen in den Medien über andere Länder – wie beispielsweise die Volksrepublik China – vermittelt werden. Oft ist dabei von sogenannten Bildern beziehungsweise Images (oder Frames) die Rede: Diese entstehen, wenn verschiedene Medien (wie beispielsweise Zeitungen, Zeitschriften, Fernsehsendungen oder Onlinemedien) in ähnlicher oder teils gleicher Form, was Sprache oder Bewertungen angeht, über einen Gegenstand berichten. Diese Beschreibungen des Gegenstandes (zum Beispiel eines Landes und seiner Bevölkerung) werden durch die häufige Wiederverwendung als „normal“ verstanden und weiter perpetuiert – nicht nur von den Medien (Vogel 2017, 49; Hufnagel/von Nordheim/Müller 2022, 3).
Im Folgenden wird ein Überblick über die bisherige Forschung zu Chinabildern in Deutschland und dem Zusammenhang zwischen Medienberichterstattung und Chinabildern gegeben. Trotz aller Kritik, die auch aus wissenschaftlicher Sicht teils an der deutschen Medienberichterstattung zu China geäußert wird, ist es sicherlich sinnvoll, sich selbst einen Eindruck von der Vielfalt der Medienberichterstattung und der Chinabilder darin zu verschaffen: Hierbei hilft unsere Linkliste, in der wir Hintergrundinformationen zu Medien und ihrer Chinaberichterstattung aufgeführt haben.
Chinabilder in Deutschland
Die Wahrnehmung Chinas in Deutschland – die Chinabilder von Deutschen also – wurden in der Huawei-Studie aus dem Jahr 2016 abgefragt (Nosselt, Schüller und Schüler-Zhou 2016). (Diese Studie wurde von der Firma Huawei 华为 aus der Volksrepublik China in Auftrag gegeben und vom GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies, der Universität Duisburg-Essen und dem TNS Emnid durchgeführt.) Dabei wurden 1.001 im Herbst 2015 befragte Deutsche nach ihren Spontanassoziationen zu China gefragt: Neben neutralen Gedankenverbindungen zu wirtschaftlicher Stärke (34% der Befragten) oder einer großen Bevölkerung (16%) wurden darüber hinaus vor allem negative Aspekte wie Menschenrechtsmissachtung (14%), Diebstahl von Ideen (11%), Billigprodukte von minderer Qualität (10%) oder wenig Umweltschutz (7%) genannt (Nosselt, Schüller und Schüler-Zhou 2016, 26). Auch eine andere Studie, die anhand von deutschen Medienberichten der Jahre 2000 bis 2013 untersuchte, welche stereotypen Vorstellungen über China dem Durchschnittsdeutschen in den Medien zugeschrieben werden, kam zu dem Ergebnis, dass dies vor allem negative Vorstellungen seien (Vogel 2017). Eine Abfrage von Chinabildern von 1010 Schüler*innen an 34 Gymnasien in 15 Bundesländern zeigte ähnliche Assoziationen wie die der in der Huawei-Studie befragten Erwachsenen (Langner 2004).
Da überrascht es wenig, dass nur 24% der 2015 in der Huawei-Studie befragten Deutschen China positiv sahen (Nosselt, Schüller und Schüler-Zhou 2016, 58). Waren damals 43% der Befragten unsicher, ob sie China positiv oder negativ betrachteten, ist die Lage mittlerweile eindeutig: Laut einer Umfrage des amerikanischen nichtstaatlichen Meinungsforschungsinstituts Pew Research Center sahen im Frühjahr 2022 74% der befragten Deutschen China negativ. Deutschland ist damit nicht allein: In allen großen Staaten des globalen Nordens wird China in der Bevölkerung mehrheitlich negativ gesehen (Silver, Huang und Clancy 2022). Eine Umfrage des europäischen Thinktanks European Council on Foreign Relations im April 2023 in 11 EU-Mitgliedsstaaten (Bulgarien, Dänemark, Frankreich, Deutschland, Italien, Niederlande, Österreich, Polen, Spanien, Schweden und Ungarn) hat dies nochmals bestätigt: Von den über 3.000 befragten Deutschen sahen 16% China als Feind und 32% China als Rivalen (Puglierin und Zerka 2023, 5).
Vonseiten des Staates und der Partei in der Volksrepublik China wird für dieses negative Chinabild in Deutschland, aber auch im ‚westlichen‘ Ausland allgemein, die kritische Medienberichterstattung verantwortlich gemacht (Hansen 2008; Thimm u.a. 2014, 55). Und auch in Deutschland gibt es Stimmen, die die Berichterstattung über China als nicht neutral und die Einstellungen zu China beeinflussend bewerten (Thimm u.a. 2014, 53-55). Doch sind in Deutschland verbreitete Chinabilder tatsächlich auf die Medienberichterstattung zurückzuführen? Der Beweis für einen direkten Zusammenhang ist kaum möglich, da die Wirkungen von Medien unterschiedlich, komplex und in der Forschung kaum empirisch nachzuweisen sind (Schweiger 2013, 27). Dennoch kann man sich einen Eindruck verschaffen, weil Wissenschaftler*innen in unterschiedlichen Studien die deutsche Medienberichterstattung zu China analysiert haben.
Empirische Studien zur Chinaberichterstattung
In Deutschland selbst sind seit 2010 fünf größere Studien erschienen, die durch ein Korpus von mehreren Zeitschriften versuchen, ein umfassenderes Bild der Chinaberichterstattung deutscher Medien zu geben. Diese Studien werden in den Forschungsperspektiven des Moduls „China in den Medien – Arbeit mit der Linkliste“ ausführlicher vorgestellt.
Übergreifend wurde in diesen Studien festgestellt, dass in der Chinaberichterstattung ein geringer Fokus auf gesellschaftlichen und kulturellen Themen und stattdessen eher auf Politik und Wirtschaft liegt (Hufnagel/von Nordheim/Müller 2022, 13, 18; Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 17; Richter/Gebauer 2010, 43-78; Thimm u.a. 2014, 23; Vogel/Jia 2017, 9) – was jedoch ein Phänomen der Auslandsberichterstattung allgemein ist (Bieber 2011, 34; Richter/Gebauer 2010, 44). (Neuere journalistische Angebote wie der ChinaTable berichten auch verstärkt über Forschung und Technologie sowie gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen.)
In mehreren der Studien wird auch hervorgehoben, dass China sehr monolithisch als eine Einheit dargestellt wird und chinesische Stimmen in der Berichterstattung wenig vorkommen (Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 8; Richter/Gebauer 2010, 16; Thimm u.a. 2014, 38). In einzelnen Studien wurde der Berichterstattung auch vorgeworfen, existierende Stereotype (wie beispielsweise China als „Billigproduzent“ oder als „attraktiver Wachstumsmarkt“) zu stärken (Richter/Gebauer 2010, 10) und wenig differenziert, hauptsächlich von deutschen Interessen bestimmt und anhand deutscher beziehungsweise ‚westlicher‘ Wertmaßstäbe bewertend zu berichten (Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 7-8). (Projekte wie Echowall oder ChinaSpektrum versuchen verschiedene chinesische Stimmen einem deutschen Publikum näherzubringen.)
In mehreren Studien wurde auch untersucht, welche Wertungen in der Berichterstattung zu China verbreitet werden. Im Themenfeld Wirtschaft und auch in den Themenfeldern Kunst, Kultur, Sport, Reisen sowie Wissenschaft und Technik werde neutral bis positiv berichtet (Nosselt/Schüller/Schüler-Zhou 2016, 40, 114, 160; Thimm u.a. 2014, 37-39). bei gesellschaftlichen Fragen wie „Arbeit und Soziales“ oder die Medienlandschaft in China hingegen eher neutral bis negativ. Die negative Bewertung war in Artikeln zum Themenfeld „Politik und Staat“ am höchsten – aber nichtsdestotrotz war die Mehrzahl der Artikel neutral (Nosselt/Schüller/Schüler-Zhou 2016, 40, 114, 160; Thimm u.a. 2014, 37-39).
Laut den Autor*innen einer Studie von 2021 waren unter den untersuchten Berichten aus der ersten Jahreshälfte 2020 im Themenfeld Innenpolitik knapp 90 Prozent und im Themenfeld Internationale Beziehungen knapp 70% kritisch oder sehr kritisch gegenüber der Volksrepublik China (Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 22, 27). Wie kam es zu dieser Veränderung? Eine Studie von 2022 untersuchte die deutsche Medienberichterstattung von 2000 bis 2019 und vermutet, dass sich die Darstellung Chinas um die Jahre 2016/2017 herum wesentlich änderte: Von der Darstellung von China hauptsächlich als Partner hin zu einem Wettbewerber Deutschlands (Hufnagel/von Nordheim/Müller 2022, 16–18). Mögliche Gründe für diesen Wandel sind Debatten in Politik und Gesellschaft damals über die Übernahme deutscher Firmen durch chinesische Firmen oder den Machtzuwachs von Xi Jinping.
Die Rolle von China-Korrespondent*innen
Auch auf strukturelle Faktoren der Medienberichterstattung wird in den Studien eingegangen: Eine besonders wichtige Rolle spielen die knapp ein Dutzend Korrespondent*innen deutschsprachiger Medien in der Volksrepublik China, die die Mehrzahl der Artikel, die sich ausführlich mit China beschäftigen, schreiben (Thimm u.a. 2014, 37-40; Richter/Gebauer 2010, 81-84; Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 30). Bei Themen mit stärkerem Deutschlandbezug spielen diese Korrespondent*innen jedoch eine untergeordnete Rolle und in Deutschland ansässige Autor*innen oder Redakteure schreiben diese Artikel meist (Jia/Leutner/Xiao 2021, 53). Im Gegensatz zu den China-Korrespondent*innen kennen sich diese Autor*innen und Redakteur*innen meist nicht gut mit China aus und können kein Chinesisch (Thimm 2017, 42).
Im Vergleich zur Anzahl der Korrespondent*innen in anderen Staaten wie zum Beispiel den USA ist die Anzahl deutscher Korrespondent*innen in der Volksrepublik China außerdem vergleichsweise gering (Thimm 2017, 40). Die Berichterstattung englischsprachiger Medien wird daher auch aufgrund der höheren Anzahl an Korrespondent*innen als ausführlicher und detaillierter eingeschätzt (Thimm 2017, 42). Allerdings stehen sowohl Printmedien in Deutschland als auch im (englischsprachigen) Ausland unter Druck, Kosten zu senken – die Zahl von Auslandskorrespondent*innen ging in den letzten Jahren zurück (Vogel 2017, 68).
Auch haben sich die Arbeitsbedingungen für Journalist*innen in China in den letzten Jahren verschlechtert – wie beispielsweise aus dem Bericht der Vereinigung ausländischer Korrespondent*innen in China (The Foreign Correspondents’ Club of China) 2022 hervorgeht (Foreign Correspondents’ Club of China 2022). Dabei wurden im Dezember 2021 127 in der Volksrepublik China arbeitende ausländische Korrespondent*innen befragt. 99% der Befragten gaben an, dass ihre Arbeitssituation in der Volksrepublik China nicht internationalen Standards entspreche, 62% gaben an, dass sie mindestens einmal durch Polizei oder Beamte in ihrer Arbeit behindert wurden und mehr als ein Viertel gab an, dass die von ihnen interviewten chinesischen Personen mehrmals von der Polizei vorgeladen oder eingesperrt wurden. Eine seit Covid-19 strikter gewordene Visavergabe und Misstrauen bis hin zu Beleidigungen erschweren die Arbeit ausländischer Journalist*innen in der Volksrepublik China (Davidson 2022).
Noch stärker unter Druck gesetzt werden Chines*innen, die für ausländische Medien arbeiten. Dies betrifft im Falle deutscher Medien vor allem die öffentlich-rechtlichen Fernsehsender ARD und ZDF. Denn im Gegensatz zu den Korrespondent*innen der Printmedien, die oft sehr gut Chinesisch können oder Sinologie studiert haben, können die ARD- und ZDF-Korrespondent*innen kaum oder kein Chinesisch. Sie arbeiten dabei mit chinesischen Nachrichtenassistent*innen zusammen, deren Arbeit in den deutschen Fernsehbeiträgen selten bis gar nicht erwähnt wird. Diese befristeten Leiharbeiter*innen müssen außerdem über staatliche Organisationen der Volksrepublik China angestellt werden und werden nach einigen Jahren von der deutschen Seite nicht selten entlassen, um Festanstellungen zu vermeiden (Feldwisch-Drentrup 2021a).
Stereotype Darstellungen
Auch gibt es in der deutschsprachigen Medienlandschaft wenig Stimmen der in Deutschland lebenden chinesischen Diaspora (Thimm u.a. 2014, 79). Dies ist womöglich einer der Gründe, warum in den deutschen Medien im Zusammenhang mit der Berichterstattung zu Covid-19 auch wiederholt stereotype und rassistische Darstellungen auftauchten – wie korientation e.V., ein Netzwerk von asiatischen Deutschen und Asiat*innen mit dem Lebensmittelpunkt Deutschland, in einer Sammlung von problematischen Medienberichten feststellt (korientation 2020–2021). Dabei spielen nicht nur die Medienberichte in Form von Texten eine Rolle, sondern auch die Bilder, die diese Berichte illustrieren und unsere Vorstellungen von China prägen. Beliebte und oft verwendete Symbole sowohl im englischsprachigen Raum als auch in deutschen Medien (Beispiel: Titelcover des Magazins Spiegel) sind die Farbe Rot oder ein gefährlich dargestellter Drache (Lee/Li 2022; Thimm u.a. 2014, 46). Diese Darstellung schließt an ältere Vorstellungen von einer „roten Gefahr“ an und stellt China und die Chinesen als eine homogene, einheitliche Masse da. Oft werden Berichte auch durch Bilder des Staatschefs Xi Jinping oder von anderen Politikern illustriert (Lee/Li 2022; Thimm u.a. 2014, 45) – auch hier wird die chinesische Bevölkerung als einheitliche Masse im Griff der Kommunistischen Partei dargestellt und somit die realen Komplexitäten von Politik und Gesellschaft und darin widerstreitenden Meinungen verdeckt.
Staatliche Propaganda aus der Volksrepublik China
Neben deutsch- und englischsprachigen Medien, die über China berichten, gibt es auch staatliche Medien aus der Volksrepublik China, die teils auf Deutsch, teils auf Englisch für ein deutsches Publikum berichten. Unter Xi Jinping (regiert seit 2012) wurde der Berichterstattung im Ausland größere Bedeutung beigemessen. Bereits 2013 forderte Xi in einer Rede, „Chinas Geschichte gut zu erzählen“ (jianghao Zhongguo gushi 讲好中国故事). 2016 wurde beispielsweise das China Global Television Network (CGTN) gegründet, um der ans Ausland gerichteten chinesischen Berichterstattung eine neue Struktur zu geben. Bei seinem Besuch in der Zentrale von CGTN 2016 forderte Xi von den Journalist*innen Loyalität gegenüber der Kommunistischen Partei und 2017 hielt er chinesische Journalist*innen erneut dazu an, ein positives Bild der Volksrepublik China zu vermitteln (Varrall 2020). Ausländische Expert*innen haben auf die Probleme innerhalb des Systems CGTN verwiesen, die dazu führen, dass die Vermittlung von positiven Botschaften über die Volksrepublik China bis jetzt im Ausland wenig Wirkung zeigt (Varrall 2020). Gleichzeitig zeigen Aussagen chinesischer Staatsmedien, dass am Ziel, die chinesische Diskursmacht (huayuquan 话语权) im Ausland zu erhöhen, weiterhin festgehalten wird (Gering 2022).
Auch in deutschen Medien finden sich daher teils Beiträge von Staatsmedien aus der Volksrepublik China: Werbung in Printmedien wie Handelsblatt und FAZ (Feldwisch-Drentrup 2021c) oder Fernsehsendungen im öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunk in Zusammenarbeit mit chinesischen Staatsmedien (Deuber 2020; Feldwisch-Drentrup 2019; Feldwisch-Drentrup 2020; Feldwisch-Drentrup 2021b; Feldwisch-Drentrup 2021d).
Jonas Schmid, 06.10.2022 (aktualisiert am 26.06.203)
Verwendetet Literatur
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