Wer regiert China? Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik
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Lerneinheit 1: Die Volksrepublik China als Meritokratie in den Medien2 Materialien|4 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 2: Chinas kaiserzeitliches Beamtenprüfungssystem3 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 3: Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik China2 Materialien|3 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 4: Datenmanipulation und Machtmonopolisierung2 Materialien|5 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 5: Zufriedenheit und Stabilität2 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 6: Diskussion1 Aufgabe
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Ergänzende Materialien3 Materialien
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M1.2
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M3.1
M1.2: Ist China eine Meritokratie?
In diesem TED-Talk – einem Kurzvortrag bei einer Konferenz der Organisation TED Conferences LLC (Technology, Entertainment, Design) – stellte Eric X. Li 2013 drei Gründe für die Stabilität des chinesischen politischen Systems vor: Flexibilität, Meritokratie und Legitimität. In dem hier gezeigten Abschnitt (8:12 – 13:19) wird die Auswahl der chinesischen politischen Elite nach dem Leistungsprinzip vorgestellt und die Legitimität des Systems begründet.
Li, Eric X. 2013. „Eric X. Li: Zwei politische Systeme“. TED. Link mit deutschen Untertiteln [Abschnitt: 8:12-13:19]. Weiterführende Informationen
Li, Eric X. 2013. „Eric X. Li: Zwei politische Systeme“. TED. Link mit deutschen Untertiteln [Abschnitt: 8:12-13:19]. Weiterführende Informationen
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/m-wrc-m1-2]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Datum | Quelle | Bildrechte | Objektbeschreibung | Inhalt |
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Autor*in: Li, Eric X. | Datum: 06.2013 | Quelle: Li, Eric X. 2013. „Zwei Politische Systeme“. TEDGlobal. https://www.ted.com/talks/eric_x_li_a_tale_of_two_political_systems?language=de | Rechte: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | Objektbeschreibung: TED-Talk des Unternehmers Erix X. Li |
Einordnung: Eric X. Li (Li Shimo 李世默) studierte an der University of California, Berkeley, Stanford University und hat einen PhD in Politikwissenschaften der prestigeträchtigen Shanghaier Fudan University (Fudan daxue 复旦大学). Er ist ein erfolgreicher Unternehmer und Investor, u.a. Gründer der Risikokapitalgesellschaft Chengwei Capital und der Nachrichtenplattform „Beobachter“ guancha.cn (guanchazhe wang 观察者网). Er publiziert regelmäßig in den US-amerikanischen Zeitschriften wie Foreign Affairs, New York Times u.ä. und spricht auf Wirtschaftskonferenzen und bei Business Schools. Er ist zudem affiliiert mit dem wirtschaftsnahen Berggruen China Center. Aufgrund seiner Präsenz in den internationalen Medien und seiner oft propagandistisch anmutenden Thesen wird Li auch als internationales Sprachrohr der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) bezeichnet – doch auch Li ist schon in die Mühlen der Zensur gefallen (Jung 2018). Der Veröffentlichung von Lis TED-Talk wurde eine Kritik des in Beijing 北京 geborenen und an der renommierten MIT Sloan School of Management in den USA tätigen Politikwissenschaftlers Yasheng Huang (Huang Yasheng 黄亚生) angehängt, die ebenfalls über die Webseite der Organisation zugänglich ist (Huang 2013b). Huang kritisiert die aus wissenschaftlicher Perspektive unqualifizierten Aussagen Lis: Er weist auf die Demokratisierung vieler, vor allem reicher Länder hin, kritisiert den von Li zitierten Transparency International Index und führt die hohe Zustimmung der chinesischen Bevölkerung zum politischen System auf die Grenzen der freien Meinungsäußerung und Problematiken der Datenerhebung im Land zurück. Huang stellt Lis Darstellung der historischen „Anpassungsfähigkeit“ der Partei in Frage, weist auf den fehlenden Zusammenhang zwischen politischem System und wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung eines Landes hin und zeigt Inkonsequenzen in Lis Argumentation auf. Die gleiche Auseinandersetzung lässt sich in der renommierten Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs nachvollziehen, in welcher sowohl Eric X. Li als auch Huang ihre Thesen ausführen (Li 2013; Huang 2013a). Die von der gemeinnützigen Organisation TED Conferences LLC (Technology, Entertainment, Design) ausgerichteten TED Talks sind für ihre kurzweilige Darstellung komplexer Themen und für brillante Rhetorik – kurz ihr erfolgreiches „Infotainment“ – bekannt geworden. Die erste Konferenz wurde 1984 veranstaltet. Ab 1990 verstetigte sich die TED Konferenz als jährliche Veranstaltung in Long Beach, Kalifornien. Seit 2006 werden ausgewählte Vorträge online zugänglich gemacht. Mittlerweile existieren mehrere Ableger, z.B. TEDx, TEDGlobal, TED-Ed und andere. Die Videos der Organisation sind so erfolgreich und stilprägend, dass sogar Ratgeber zur Rhetorik im TED-Stil des Storytellings erschienen sind (Edelkraut und Balzer 2016). Auch im Unterricht kann das Format eines TED-Talks als Vorbild genutzt werden, um Präsentationstechniken zu reflektieren und praktisch einzuüben. Zugleich wird Kritik bezüglich des Einkommensmodels der Organisation laut: Trotz hohen Einkünften aus Ticket-Preisen werden Redner*innen und Übersetzer*innen nicht bezahlt. Auch die Verherrlichung von Technologie und die Idealisierung eines/einer öffentlichkeitswirksamen Intellektuellen durch das Format wird kritisiert: Der/die Wissenschaftler*in wird zum Konsumobjekt und habe so nicht nur den Strukturen der akademischen Forschung, sondern auch den Zwängen der Konsumwelt zu gehorchen (Shumar 2016). Auch die Auswirkungen von amplifizierter Sichtbarkeit von nicht-akademischen Stimmen, insbesondere im Bereich der Technologie, gegenüber von wissenschaftlichen Ergebnissen kann kritisch betrachtet werden (Jurgenson 2012). Diese Problematik kann am Beispiel von Eric X. Lis Vortrag verdeutlicht werden: Eric X. Li ist Unternehmer, sein Vortrag wurde schon über drei Millionen Mal aufgerufen – Huang Yashengs wissenschaftliche Kritik im Format eines Blogbeitrages bzw. die Diskussion in den Seiten der Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs ist wohl kaum von ähnlich Vielen wahrgenommen worden. Viele der Nachteile, die in der hier dargestellten Form von Demokratie beschrieben sind, treffen eher auf angloamerikanische Systeme zu. Ihnen wird in Deutschland oft schon mit meritokratischen Elementen, indirekter Repräsentation, der Einschränkung direkter Demokratie und dem im Mehrparteiensystem unerlässlichen Kompromissstreben Rechnung getragen. (Odila Schröder, 30.4.2021) Verwendete Literatur 2596022
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Berggruen, Nicolas und Nathan Gardels. 2013. Klug regieren: Politik für das 21. Jahrhundert. Übers. von Heike Schlatterer. Freiburg ; Basel ; Wien: Herder. Zitieren
Eine abgeschwächte Variante der Meritokratie-These findet sich in diesem Buch des deutsch-amerikanischen Unternehmers und Gründer des Berggruen China Centers Nicolas Berggruen und des Journalisten Herausgebers des Noema Magazins und Mitgründes des Berggruen China Centers, Nathan Gardels.
Carlson, Benjamin. 2013. When a TED talk is a propaganda tool. Salon. 8. November. https://www.salon.com/2013/08/11/ted_talk_is_propaganda_tool_for_chinese_communism_partner/ (zugegriffen: 21. April 2021). Zitieren
Edelkraut, Frank und Stephan Balzer. 2016. Inspiring! Kommunizieren im TED-Stil. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler. Zitieren
Dieses Buch dient als Anleitung zur erfolgreichen Wissenschaftskommunikation im Stil eines TED-Talks. Darüber hinaus geht es auf die Wirkungen des Genres in Bezug auf globale Vernetzung und Innovations ein.
Huang, Yasheng. 2013. A critique of Eric X. Li’s “A tale of two political systems”. TEDBlog. 1. Juli. https://blog.ted.com/why-democracy-still-wins-a-critique-of-eric-x-lis-a-tale-of-two-political-systems/ (zugegriffen: 21. April 2021). Zitieren
Huang, Yasheng. 2013. Democratize or Die: Why China’s Communists Face Reform or Revolution Essay. Foreign Affairs 92, Nr. 1: 47–54. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/fora92&i=83 (zugegriffen: 11. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Jung, Chauncey. 2018. Even propagandist Eric X. Li falls victim to a new censorship campaign. SupChina. 14. November. https://supchina.com/2018/11/14/even-propagandist-eric-x-li-falls-victim-to-a-new-censorship-campaign/ (zugegriffen: 28. April 2021). Zitieren
Jurgenson, Nathan. 2012. Against TED. The New Inquiry. 15. Februar. https://thenewinquiry.com/against-ted/ (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
Li, Eric X. 2013. The Life of the Party: The Post-Democratic Future Begins in China Essay. Foreign Affairs 92, Nr. 1: 34–46. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/fora92&i=52 (zugegriffen: 11. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Dieser Artikel, publiziert in der renommierten Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs, kann als Grundlage und Ausführung von Eric X. Lis TED-Talk verstanden und herangezogen werden.
Shumar, Wesley. 2016. „Being TED“: The university intellectual as globalised neoliberal consumer self. Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 9, Nr. 2: 89–108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44645786 (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
O A. 2013. We need to talk about TED | Benjamin Bratton. the Guardian. 30. Dezember. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/30/we-need-to-talk-about-ted (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
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M3.1: Auswahl- und Bewertungskriterien von Politiker*innen in der Volksrepublik China (VR China)
Wie sieht die Karriere eines Beamten in der VR China aus? Was sind die Kriterien, nach denen Beamte heute ausgewählt und befördert werden?
Die Auswahl chinesischer Staatsbeamter wird von der Organisationsabteilung der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) vorgenommen. Über 80% der Kader sind Parteimitglieder – über der Kreisebene sogar über 95% (Brødsgaard 2012, 74). Schon bei der Aufnahme in die Partei wird eine strenge Vorauswahl getroffen. Angehende Mitglieder legen Prüfungen ab, besuchen Kurse und müssen ihre Treue gegenüber ideologischen Prinzipien nachweisen. Zudem werden Schüler*innen und Student*innen mit herausragenden Leistungen zum Eintritt in die Partei angehalten. Auch für Berufstätige stellt der Eintritt in die Partei häufig eine Voraussetzung für den Karriereaufstieg dar. Um die Leistungsfähigkeit der Kader zu erhöhen werden seit den 1990er Jahren bevorzugt junge Universitätsabsolvent*innen in die Partei aufgenommen – gleichzeitig stieg der Anteil der Universitätsabsolvent*innen in der Gesamtbevölkerung. Der Prozentsatz der Parteimitglieder mit Universitätsabschluss ist von 11,3% im Jahr 1998 auf 46,6% im Jahr 2019 angestiegen (Thomas 2020b). Dabei ist der Anteil von Arbeiter*innen und Bauern/Bäuerinnen – die traditionelle Hauptklientel der Partei – auf unter 35% gesunken (Grünberg 2021). Zugleich wächst der Anteil an Privatunternehmer*innen in der Partei.
Die meisten angehenden Staatsbeamten legen strenge Prüfungen ab: Die Beamtenprüfung für den Staatsdienst der VR China (guojia gongwuyuan kaoshi 国家公务员考试, kurz: guokao 国考) findet jedes Jahr statt. Mittlerweile nehmen ca. anderthalb Millionen Kandidat*innen teil, nur ca. jeder 60. Kandidat*in bekommt eine Stelle. Die Prüfung umfasst über 130 Multiple-Choice-Fragen in den Bereichen Allgemeinwissen, Textverständnis, Mathematik, Logik, Materialanalyse, die in zwei Stunden bearbeitet werden müssen, sowie eine dreistündige schriftliche Prüfung mit Aufsätzen zu politischen Themen (offcn.com 2021). Da vor allem die ältere Beamtenschaft starke Defizite zeigte, werden Kader heute im weiteren Verlauf ihrer Karriere wiederholt fortgebildet (Heilmann, Shih, und Hepp 2016, 108).
In die obersten Führungsriegen schaffen es jedoch nur wenige. Entscheidend für den Karriereaufstieg von Anwärter*innen sind Alter, Bildungsabschlüsse, Erfahrung und Leistung auf Provinzebene (Landry, Lü, und Duan 2017; Kostka und Xiaofan 2015), sowie das Geschlecht (Shen 2020) – aber auch persönliche Verbindungen zur Führungselite der Partei und Faktionszugehörigkeit spielen eine Rolle (Shih, Adolph, und Liu 2012; Yang Zhang 2014; Jia, Kudamatsu, und Seim 2015).
2019 wurden die offiziellen Bewertungskriterien von sogenannten Führungskadern (Beamte auf Provinz-, Stadt- und Bezirksebene, lingdao ganbu 领导干部) weiter überarbeitet. Dabei handelt es sich um Zielsetzungen und Ideale, die offiziell angestrebt, in der Praxis jedoch nicht voll erfüllt werden. Sie geben jedoch Aufschluss über die Priorisierung der Kriterien. Hier ein Ausschnitt:
Artikel 8. Bewertungskriterien für die Führungskader umfassen hauptsächlich:
- Tugend. […] Bewertung der politischen Qualität der Führungskader, die sich durch das Verständnis der festen Ideale und Überzeugungen, Loyalität gegenüber der Partei, Respekt für die Parteiverfassung, die Einhaltung der politischen Disziplin und politischen Regeln, sowie ein hohes Maß an Übereinstimmung in Ideologie, Politik und Verhalten mit Genosse Xi Jinping als dem Kern der Partei auszeichnen. […]
- Können. Umfassende Beurteilung der Führungskader in Bezug auf die Erfüllung ihrer Aufgaben und Verantwortlichkeiten, insbesondere in Bezug auf die Reaktion auf Notfälle, Massenereignisse, politische Fähigkeiten, Professionalität und organisatorische Führungsfähigkeit.
- Fleiß. […] fleißig und engagiert, pflichtbewusst und verantwortungsbewusst, schnell, risikofreudig, nicht verantwortungsscheu, hart arbeitend, mit Bereitschaft zur Aufopferung.
- Leistung. [Kader] führen ihre Pflichten aus, erledigen ihre tägliche Arbeit, übernehmen dringende und schwierige Aufgaben, befassen sich mit komplexen Fragen […]
- Integrität. […] unparteiische Nutzung der Macht […]
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/m-wrc-m3-1]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Titel | Datum | Bildrechte | Objektbeschreibung | Einordnung |
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Autor: Odila Schröder | Titel: Auswahl- und Bewertungskriterien chinesischer Politiker | Datum: 11.05.2021 | Rechte: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | Objektbeschreibung: Hintergrundtext zu Auswahl- und Bewertungskriterien von Parteimitgliedern der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) und Kadern in der VR China. | Einordnung: Der Text wurde verfasst von Odila Schröder, Mitarbeiterin der China-Schul-Akademie. Er orientiert sich am aktuellen Forschungsstand und Statistiken zur politischen Elite und Verwaltung der VR China (siehe: weiterführende Literatur und Forschungsstand). Er enthält eine Übersetzung von Ausschnitten der im April 2019 veröffentlichten „Vorschriften zur Beurteilung von Führungskräften der Partei und der Regierung“ (Dangzheng lingdao ganbu kaohe gongzuo tiaoli 党政领导干部考核工作条例) (Xinhua Press Agency 2019). Eine vollständige Übersetzung einer früheren Version derselben Regularien sind in englischer Sprache verfügbar (Creemers 2014). Die regelmäßige Überarbeitung der Regularien kann im Rahmen der Reformen des Kadermanagementsystems, zunehmender innerparteilicher Disziplin und der Korruptionsvermeidung gesehen werden. Die in den Regularien aufgeführten Eigenschaften sind als Zielvorstellungen formuliert und entsprechen nicht den tatsächlichen Verhältnissen. Die Priorisierung von Loyalität gegenüber der Partei und die namentliche Erwähnung von Xi Jinping stellen eine rein leistungsorientierte Auswahl jedoch schon in Frage. Die in Punkt 2. unter „Können“ aufgezählten Fähigkeiten umfassen explizit die angemessene Reaktion auf sogenannte „Massenereignisse“ – als solche werden gemeinhin Demonstrationen und Streiks bezeichnet, die sich gegen lokale Akteure oder sogar die Zentralregierung wenden. Oberste Priorität der Regierung der VR China bleibt der Systemerhalt und damit der Machterhalt der KPCh. Unter den Bewertungskriterien finden sich auch solche, die breite Zustimmung verdienen – so z.B. die Einbeziehung von Umweltschutz (siehe auch M4.1). Jedoch werden solche Elemente oft erst aufgenommen, wenn das Unterlassen notwendiger Anpassungen die politische und soziale Stabilität und damit den Systemerhalt in Frage stellen würde (A. Wang 2013, 365). Ob das System der leistungsabhängigen Beförderung tatsächlich zur Umsetzung der von oberster Führungsebene angestrebten politischen Ziele führt ist umstritten: Da Kader auf Kreisebene, der niedrigsten administrativen Ebene z.B. nur eine sehr geringe Chance haben, überhaupt befördert zu werden, ist fragwürdig, ob die Beförderung als Anreiz effektiv ist (Kostka und Xiaofan 2015).
Daten zur politischen Elite der VR China und der Organisationsabteilung der KPCh sind nur sporadisch einsehbar. So zitieren bis heute viele Studien die 1999 von der Organisationsabteilung veröffentlichten Daten (Heilmann, Shih, und Hepp 2016, 100–101). Dies liegt auch an der obskuren Definition des chinesischen Begriffes „Führungskader“ (lingdao ganbu 领导干部). Die Datenlage zu Parteimitgliedern ist klarer – entsprechende Statistiken sind abrufbar (Thomas 2020b; Grünberg 2021). Auch Daten zur obersten Führungsschicht – den Abgeordneten des Nationalkongresses und Mitgliedern des Zentralkomitees der KPCh – sind zugänglich (Shih 2020–2021) – siehe dazu auch M3.2. Die extrem kompetitive Auswahl von Kadern erstreckt sich nicht auf alle Bereiche. So werden politisch und in der öffentlichen Verwaltung tätige Kader z.B. aus anderen Bereichen – staatseigenen Betrieben, Universitäten oder anderen staatlichen Organisationen – versetzt. Bis zur Reform der Beamtenbesoldung und starken Erhöhung der Gehälter um die 2010er Jahre fand auf Lokalebene häufig Ämterkauf statt (Burns 2007). Ämter auf dieser Ebene brachten zwar wenig Gehalt ein, aber viele Möglichkeiten der Einnahmen durch Bestechlichkeit oder Einflussnahme. Seit der Zulassung von Privatunternehmern als Mitglieder der KPCh im Rahmen der „Dreifachen Repräsentation“ oder des „Dreifaches Vertretens“ (san ge daibiao 三个代表) von Jiang Zemin 江泽民 (1926- ) im Jahr 2002 lässt sich eine immer engere Verflechtung von wirtschaftlicher und politischer Elite in der VR China beobachten. Schon zuvor gab es Überlappungen zwischen Partei und Privatunternehmer*innen (Holbig 2002). Zwischen 1997 und 2008 sind zahlreiche Parteimitglieder auch privatwirtschaftlich aktiv geworden und setzten ihre politische Macht in ökonomische Macht um (J. Yang u. a. 2020). Verwendete Literatur 2596022
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Brødsgaard, Kjeld Erik. 2012. Cadre and Personnel Management in the CPC. China: An International Journal 10, Nr. 2: 69–83. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/482925. Zitieren
Wertvoller Überblick zu Chinas Kadermanagementsystem mit statistischen Daten und Erläuterung der Zuständigkeiten von Kadern.
Burns, John P. 2009. The Chinese Communist Party’s nomenklatura system as a leadership selections mechanism. In: The Chinese Communist Party in reform, hg. von Erik Brodsgaard Kjeld und Yongnian Zheng, 35–58. Digital print. Routledge studies on the Chinese economy ; 21. London (u.a.]: Routledge. Zitieren
John P Burns identifiziert mehrere Phasen, in denen das Nomanklaturasystem nicht effizient der Auswahl qualifizierter Kader gedient hat: Die Kulturrevolution, 1952-1953, Mitte der 1980er Jahre und in den 1990er Jahren. Burns sieht die primäre Funktion des Systems im Selbsterhalt und zeigt, dass das System selbst in Zeiten relativer Sicherheit – insbesondere aufgrund weitverbreiteter Korruption – nicht effiziert funktioniert hat.
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Creemers, Rogier. 2014. Work Regulations for Leading Party and Government Cadre Promotions and Appointments. China Copyright and Media. 14. Januar. https://chinacopyrightandmedia.wordpress.com/2014/01/15/work-regulations-for-party-and-government-leading-cadre-promotions-and-appointments/ (zugegriffen: 5. März 2021). Zitieren
Grünberg, Nis. 2021. Who is the CCP? China’s Communist Party in infographics | Merics. Merics. 16. März. https://merics.org/en/short-analysis/who-ccp-chinas-communist-party-infographics (zugegriffen: 28. April 2021). Zitieren
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Erste Analyse der 1999 veröffentlichten Statistiken der Organisationsabteilung der KPCh über den Zeitraum 1949-1999.
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Holbig, Heike. 2002. The Party and Private Entrepreneurs in the PRC. The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 16 (10. März): 30–56. http://doi.org/10.22439/cjas.v16i0.4, https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/cjas/article/view/4 (zugegriffen: 11. März 2021). Zitieren
Kostka, Genia und Yu Xiaofan. 2015. Career Backgrounds of Municipal Party Secretaries in China: Why Do So Few Municipal Party Secretaries Rise from the County Level? Modern China 41, Nr. 5: 467–505. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24575636 (zugegriffen: 8. März 2021). Zitieren
Diese Studie zeigt, dass Alter, Bildungshintergrund und persönliche Netzwerke, aber auch Berufserfahrun in einer Provinz entscheidend für den Karriereaufstieg von Kreis- zu Stadt- oder Provinzebene sind. Außerdem wird in Frage gestellt, ob das Kadermanagementsystem tatsächlich eine effektive Kontrolle über politische Zielsetzungen bietet. Da Kader auf Kreisebene nur eine sehr geringe Chance haben überhaupt befördert zu werden ist fragwürdig, ob die Beförderung als Anreiz effektiv ist.
Ma, Damien und Niel Thomas. 2019. Who Rules China? Comparing Representation on the NPC and Central Committee. MacroPolo. 25. März. https://macropolo.org/analysis/representation-19th-npc-central-committee-chinese-politics/ (zugegriffen: 24. Juni 2021). Zitieren
Shih, Victor. 2020. CCP Elite Database. China Data Lab. https://chinadatalab.ucsd.edu/elites/ (zugegriffen: 3. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Shih, Victor und Yang Young. 2020. The Makeup of the CCP Elite. China Data Lab. 10. November. https://chinadatalab.ucsd.edu/viz-blog/the-makeup-of-the-ccp-elite/ (zugegriffen: 2. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Thomas, Niel. 2020. Members Only: A Look at Recruitment Trends in the CCP. MacroPolo. 15. Juli. https://macropolo.org/analysis/members-only-recruitment-trends-in-the-chinese-communist-party/ (zugegriffen: 11. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Wang, Alex. 2013. The Search for Sustainable Legitimacy: Environmental Law and Bureaucracy in China. SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2128167 (zugegriffen: 10. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Xinhua Press Agency. 2019. 中共中央办公厅印发《党政领导干部考核工作条例》. gov.cn. 21. April. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2019-04/21/content_5384955.htm (zugegriffen: 4. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Yang, Jin, Jian Huang, Yanhua Deng und Massimo Bordignon. 2020. The rise of red private entrepreneurs in China: Policy shift, institutional settings and political connection. China Economic Review 61 (1. Juni): 101431. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2020.101431, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043951X20300286 (zugegriffen: 11. März 2021). Zitieren
O A. 2020. Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party. In: Wikipedia. 19. Dezember. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organization_Department_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party&oldid=995080911 (zugegriffen: 6. Januar 2021). Zitieren
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M3.1: Aufgabe 1
Zuordnung: M3.1In seinem TED Talk lobt Eric X. Li die leistungsorientierte Auswahl der politischen Elite der VR China. Vergleichen Sie die in M3.1. beschriebenen Auswahlverfahren und Kriterien zur Bewertung von Führungskadern mit dem von Eric X. Li dargestellten Ideal.-
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