Wer regiert China? Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik
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Lerneinheit 1: Die Volksrepublik China als Meritokratie in den Medien2 Materialien|4 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 2: Chinas kaiserzeitliches Beamtenprüfungssystem3 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 3: Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik China2 Materialien|3 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 4: Datenmanipulation und Machtmonopolisierung2 Materialien|5 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 5: Zufriedenheit und Stabilität2 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 6: Diskussion1 Aufgabe
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Ergänzende Materialien3 Materialien
M2.1: Das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem (keju 科举)
Wer durfte den chinesischen Kaiser beraten? Und wie wurde man im kaiserzeitlichen China Staatsbeamter?
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/m-wrc-m2-1]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Titel | Datum | Quelle | Bildrechte | Objektbeschreibung | Einordnung |
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Autor: Odila Schröder | Titel: Das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem (keju 科举) | Datum: 10.06.2021 | Quelle: Odila Schröder | Rechte: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | Objektbeschreibung: Hintergrundinformationen zum kaiserzeitlichen Beamtenprüfungssystem | Einordnung: Der Text wurde verfasst von Odila Schröder, Mitarbeiterin der China-Schul-Akademie. Er orientiert sich am aktuellen Forschungsstand zum kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungssystem (siehe: weiterführende Literatur und Forschungsperspektiven). Das Prüfungssystem änderte sich über die Jahrhunderte, die hier beschriebenen Einzelheiten beziehen sich, so nicht anders angegeben, auf die Qing-Dynastie (1644-1912). Der Bildungskanon und das Prinzip der schriftlichen Prüfungen blieben jedoch weitgehend stabil. Einen weiteren Überblick liefern die unten gelisteten Nachschlagewerke (Bastid-Bruguière 2003; B. Elman 2016). Detailinformationen zu den Beamtenprüfungen sind in einem umfangreichen und verlässlichen Wikipedia Artikel nachzulesen („Chinesische Beamtenprüfung während der Qing-Dynastie“ 2021).
Das Kadersystem der VR China wird heute häufig als direkte Fortführung kaiserzeitlicher Prüfungssysteme dargestellt. Sicherlich kann der Bezug auf die Tradition von Beamtenprüfungen eine gewisse Akzeptanz für solche Auswahlsysteme hervorrufen. Das Kadermanagementsystem der VR China steht jedoch in einer ganz anderen Tradition, nämlich der des sowjetischen Nomenklatura-Systems (zhiwu mingcheng biao zhidu 职务名称表制度) (Rigby 1988) und wurde in seiner heutigen Form erst um 1980 wiederbelebt (Manion 1985, 205–7). Zwischen der Abschaffung der kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungen 1905 und der Wiedereinführung von strengen Auswahlverfahren für Kader liegen also Jahrzehnte anderer Praktiken - in denen Klassenzugehörigkeit und politische Gesinnung oder aber persönliche Kontakte eine größere Rolle spielten als bestandene Prüfungen (Burns 2009, 39–52). Eine direkte Rückkoppelung zum kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungssystem ist also nicht gegeben. Der simple Hinweis auf historische Kontinuitäten kann heutige Auswahlsysteme also weder formal noch kulturell legitimieren. Dennoch hinterlässt das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem bis heute Spuren – nicht nur im kulturellen Gedächtnis der chinesischen Gesellschaft, sondern im chinesischen Verwaltungs- und Bildungssystem (vgl. Modul Schulsystem). Im Text ist wiederholt von Kandidaten die Rede – tatsächlich waren traditionell ausschließlich männliche Kandidaten zu den Prüfungen zugelassen. Dies schließt natürlich die Teilnahme vereinzelter weiblicher oder sich nicht als männlich identifizierender Kandidat*innen nicht aus. Eine Ausnahme stellte evt. das Beamtenprüfungssystem unter der Taiping Rebellion dar. Die konfuzianischen Klassiker und andere Texte des chinesischen Altertums, vom Daoismus bis hin zu mathematischen Schriften, sind im Chinese Text Project zusammen mit frühen englischsprachigen Übersetzungen von James Legge frei verfügbar (Sturgeon 2006–2021). Die Datenbank vermittelt einen Eindruck vom Umfang und Aufbau der Texte, die für die kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungen auswendig gelernt werden mussten. Für eine eingehendere Lektüre empfehlen wir die deutschsprachigen Übersetzungen in der Reihe „Klassiker des chinesischen Denkens“ des Herder Verlages, z.B. Konfuzius Gespräche (Konfuzius 2011). Frühe Übersetzungen der Gespräche des Konfuzius und das Buch der Riten von Richard Wilhelm (1873-1930), einem der Urväter der deutschsprachigen Sinologie, sind frei verfügbar (Wilhelm 1975; 1981). Zu den linguistischen Aspekten des Beamtenprüfungssystems: Die konfuzianischen Klassiker sind in klassischem Chinesisch (wenyanwen 文言文) verfasst. Funktional ist klassisches Chinesisch vergleichbar mit Latein als lingua franca (B. A. Elman 2000, 373). Chinesische Zeichen sind zwar unabhängig von ihrer Aussprache in verschiedenen Dialekten lesbar, jedoch entfernten sich Umgangs- und Schriftsprache mit der Zeit immer weiter voneinander (Diglossie). Zudem entstand eine „Beamtensprache“ (guanhua 官話), die sich an der Schriftsprache der Hauptstadt (zwischen 1415-1421 verlegt von Nanjing 南京 nach Beijing 北京) und damit an den nordchinesischen Dialekten orientierte und insbesondere von Prüfungskandidaten aus Südchina erlernt werden musste (B. A. Elman 2000, 373–75). Die klassische Schriftsprache und der konfuzianische Bildungskanon sorgten über Jahrhunderte für gesellschaftlichen Zusammenhalt. Doch im späten 19. Jahrhundert wurden die als starr empfundenen formalen Anforderungen der Beamtenprüfungen und ausbleibende Reformen der Prüfungsinhalte zunehmend für die Souveränitätsverluste Chinas verantwortlich gemacht. Der Ruf nach Modernisierung der Schriftsprache und der Einfluss von umgangssprachlicheren Publikationen und Übersetzungen anderssprachiger Werke führte im späten 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert zur umfassenden Reform der chinesischen Schriftsprache. Der Prozess der Sprachreformen ist Gegenstand umfangreicher linguistischer und historischer Forschung (Kaske 2007). Die vom chinesischen Verwaltungssystem umfassend erfassten biografischen Daten zu kaiserzeitlichen Beamten sind bis heute erhalten. Die China Biographical Database umfasst Daten zu knapp 500.000 Individuen, meist chinesische Elitenangehörige, die zwischen dem 7. und 19. Jahrhundert aktiv waren (Harvard University, Academia Sinica, und Peking University 2021). Diese Daten ermöglichen den Einblick in geografische Verschiebungen, soziale Netzwerke, intellektuelle Kontakte und persönliche Entwicklungen. (Odila Schröder, 11.5.2021) Verwendete Literatur
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Bastid-Bruguière, Marianne. 2003. Prüfungssystem. In: Das grosse China-Lexikon: Geschichte, Geographie, Gesellschaft, Politik, Wirtschaft, Bildung, Wissenschaft, Kultur, hg. von Brunhild Staiger, Stefan Friedrich, und Hans-Wilm Schütte. Institut für Asienkunde Hamburg. Darmstadt: Primus. Zitieren
Burns, John P. 2009. The Chinese Communist Party’s nomenklatura system as a leadership selections mechanism. In: The Chinese Communist Party in reform, hg. von Erik Brodsgaard Kjeld und Yongnian Zheng, 35–58. Digital print. Routledge studies on the Chinese economy ; 21. London (u.a.]: Routledge. Zitieren
John P Burns identifiziert mehrere Phasen, in denen das Nomanklaturasystem nicht effizient der Auswahl qualifizierter Kader gedient hat: Die Kulturrevolution, 1952-1953, Mitte der 1980er Jahre und in den 1990er Jahren. Burns sieht die primäre Funktion des Systems im Selbsterhalt und zeigt, dass das System selbst in Zeiten relativer Sicherheit - insbesondere aufgrund weitverbreiteter Korruption - nicht effiziert funktioniert hat. Chen, Ting, James Kai-sing Kung und Chicheng Ma. 2020. Long Live Keju! The Persistent Effects of China’s Civil Examination System. The Economic Journal 130, Nr. 631 (16. Oktober): 2030–2064. http://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueaa043, https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/130/631/2030/5819954 (zugegriffen: 21. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
De Weerdt, Hilde Godelieve Dominique. 2007. Competition over content: negotiating standards for the civil service examinations in imperial China (1127-1279). Harvard East Asian monographs 289. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center : Distributed by Harvard University Press. Zitieren
De Weerdt, Hilde Godelieve Dominique. 2022. The Chinese Civil Examinations. INFERENCE 7, Nr. 3. https://inference-review.com/article/the-chinese-civil-examinations?fbclid=IwAR0Fe8IKRJ1HdsSx2q5SGI_S0Vb0AaPl1mMSeA-x-msngviyEL6hagax3qg. Zitieren
Drucker, Alison R. 1981. The Influence of Western Women on the Anti-Footbinding Movement 1840-1911. Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 8, Nr. 3: 179–199. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298767 (zugegriffen: 24. Juni 2021). Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2000. A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press. Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2013. Civil examinations and meritocracy in late Imperial China. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: Harvard Univ. Press. http://katalog.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/titel/67688032. Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 1991. Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China. The Journal of Asian Studies 50, Nr. 1: 7–28. http://doi.org/10.2307/2057472, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2057472 (zugegriffen: 23. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2009. Civil Service Examinations. In: Berkshire Encyclopedia of China, 1:405–410. Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Publishing Group. Zitieren
Die englischsprachige Berkshire Encyclopedia of China richtet sich an die interessierte Öffentlichkeit. Der Artikel ist von Benjamin Elman verfasst, einem anerkannten Spezialisten für das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem. Der Artikel enhält auch ein berühmtes Zitat des Qing-zeitlichen Prüfungskandidaten und Schriftstellers Pu Songling, das die Strapazen der Prüfungen besonders farbig illustriert. Harvard University, Academia Sinica und Peking University. 2021. China Biographical Database Project (CBDB). https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/cbdb/home (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
Heilmann, Sebastian und Sarah Kirchberger. 2000. Chinas politische Führungsschicht im Wandel: Personalstatistiken der ZK-Organisationsabteilung erstmals zugänglich. China aktuell: 499–507. http://doi.org/10.11588/chakt.2000.Mai.10840, https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/chakt/article/view/10840 (zugegriffen: 15. März 2021). Zitieren
Erste Analyse der 1999 veröffentlichten Statistiken der Organisationsabteilung der KPCh über den Zeitraum 1949-1999. Klaschka, Siegfried. 2000. Glücklich, wer Beamter ist. Die Zeit, 13. Juli, Abschn. Gesellschaft. https://www.zeit.de/2000/29/Gluecklich_wer_Beamter_ist/komplettansicht (zugegriffen: 1. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Siegfried Klaschka ist Sinologe an der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg mit besonderem Interesse an Korruption im alten China. Was haben Klassiker der chinesischen Philosophie wie zum Beispiel Konfuzius tatsächlich gesagt? Das lässt sich in den Übersetzungen von Wolfgang Kubin in der Reihe "Klassiker des Chinesischen Denkens" im Herder Verlag nachlesen. Neben den deutschen Übersetzungen und den chinesischen Originaltexten ausgewählter Stellen kommentiert Kubin diese und erklärt deren Bedeutung. Weitere Bücher der Reihe finden Sie unter: https://www.herder.de/religion-spiritualitaet-shop/klassiker-des-chinesischen-denkens-kartonierte-ausgabe/c-38/p-18032/ Miyazaki, Ichisada. 1981. China’s Examination Hell: The Civil Service Examinations of Imperial China. Yale University Press. Zitieren
Sturgeon Donald. 2006. Chinese Text Project. https://ctext.org/ (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
Wilhelm, Richard. 1975. Lunyu - Gespräche. http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Kong+Fu+Zi+(Konfuzius)/Lunyu+-+Gespr%C3%A4che (zugegriffen: 2. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Wilhelm, Richard. 1981. Li Gi. Das Buch der Riten, Sitten und Gebräuche. http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Anonym/Li+Gi+-+Das+Buch+der+Riten,+Sitten+und+Gebr%C3%A4uche (zugegriffen: 2. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Zhang, Yongle. 2018. The Historical Sources of China’s Political Meritocracy. Politics and Religion 11, Nr. 4 (Dezember): 888–891. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1755048318000664, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/historical-sources-of-chinas-political-meritocracy-the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy-2015-2016-by-daniel-a-bell-princeton-princeton-university-press-336-pp-3095-cloth-1995-paper/D7E1276A4F273E6DD5F4C6D99B7B5BDB (zugegriffen: 7. Januar 2021). Zitieren
In diesem Review von Daniel Bells Buch "The China Model" wird der direkte Rückbezug Bells auf die "Konfuzianische Tradition" der Auswahl von Beamten kritisiert und auf den Einfluss sowjietischer Vorbilder verwiesen. O A. 2021. Chinesische Beamtenprüfung während der Qing-Dynastie. In: Wikipedia. 10. März. https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinesische_Beamtenpr%C3%BCfung_w%C3%A4hrend_der_Qing-Dynastie&oldid=209654080 (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
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