Wer regiert China? Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik
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Lerneinheit 1: Die Volksrepublik China als Meritokratie in den Medien2 Materialien|4 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 2: Chinas kaiserzeitliches Beamtenprüfungssystem3 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 3: Die politische Elite der Volksrepublik China2 Materialien|3 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 4: Datenmanipulation und Machtmonopolisierung2 Materialien|5 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 5: Zufriedenheit und Stabilität2 Materialien|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 6: Diskussion1 Aufgabe
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Ergänzende Materialien3 Materialien
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M1.2
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M2.1
M1.2: Ist China eine Meritokratie?
In diesem TED-Talk – einem Kurzvortrag bei einer Konferenz der Organisation TED Conferences LLC (Technology, Entertainment, Design) – stellte Eric X. Li 2013 drei Gründe für die Stabilität des chinesischen politischen Systems vor: Flexibilität, Meritokratie und Legitimität. In dem hier gezeigten Abschnitt (8:12 – 13:19) wird die Auswahl der chinesischen politischen Elite nach dem Leistungsprinzip vorgestellt und die Legitimität des Systems begründet.
Li, Eric X. 2013. „Eric X. Li: Zwei politische Systeme“. TED. Link mit deutschen Untertiteln [Abschnitt: 8:12-13:19]. Weiterführende Informationen
Li, Eric X. 2013. „Eric X. Li: Zwei politische Systeme“. TED. Link mit deutschen Untertiteln [Abschnitt: 8:12-13:19]. Weiterführende Informationen
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/m-wrc-m1-2]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Datum | Quelle | Bildrechte | Objektbeschreibung | Inhalt |
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Autor*in: Li, Eric X. | Datum: 06.2013 | Quelle: Li, Eric X. 2013. „Zwei Politische Systeme“. TEDGlobal. https://www.ted.com/talks/eric_x_li_a_tale_of_two_political_systems?language=de | Rechte: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 | Objektbeschreibung: TED-Talk des Unternehmers Erix X. Li |
Einordnung: Eric X. Li (Li Shimo 李世默) studierte an der University of California, Berkeley, Stanford University und hat einen PhD in Politikwissenschaften der prestigeträchtigen Shanghaier Fudan University (Fudan daxue 复旦大学). Er ist ein erfolgreicher Unternehmer und Investor, u.a. Gründer der Risikokapitalgesellschaft Chengwei Capital und der Nachrichtenplattform „Beobachter“ guancha.cn (guanchazhe wang 观察者网). Er publiziert regelmäßig in den US-amerikanischen Zeitschriften wie Foreign Affairs, New York Times u.ä. und spricht auf Wirtschaftskonferenzen und bei Business Schools. Er ist zudem affiliiert mit dem wirtschaftsnahen Berggruen China Center. Aufgrund seiner Präsenz in den internationalen Medien und seiner oft propagandistisch anmutenden Thesen wird Li auch als internationales Sprachrohr der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) bezeichnet – doch auch Li ist schon in die Mühlen der Zensur gefallen (Jung 2018). Der Veröffentlichung von Lis TED-Talk wurde eine Kritik des in Beijing 北京 geborenen und an der renommierten MIT Sloan School of Management in den USA tätigen Politikwissenschaftlers Yasheng Huang (Huang Yasheng 黄亚生) angehängt, die ebenfalls über die Webseite der Organisation zugänglich ist (Huang 2013b). Huang kritisiert die aus wissenschaftlicher Perspektive unqualifizierten Aussagen Lis: Er weist auf die Demokratisierung vieler, vor allem reicher Länder hin, kritisiert den von Li zitierten Transparency International Index und führt die hohe Zustimmung der chinesischen Bevölkerung zum politischen System auf die Grenzen der freien Meinungsäußerung und Problematiken der Datenerhebung im Land zurück. Huang stellt Lis Darstellung der historischen „Anpassungsfähigkeit“ der Partei in Frage, weist auf den fehlenden Zusammenhang zwischen politischem System und wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung eines Landes hin und zeigt Inkonsequenzen in Lis Argumentation auf. Die gleiche Auseinandersetzung lässt sich in der renommierten Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs nachvollziehen, in welcher sowohl Eric X. Li als auch Huang ihre Thesen ausführen (Li 2013; Huang 2013a). Die von der gemeinnützigen Organisation TED Conferences LLC (Technology, Entertainment, Design) ausgerichteten TED Talks sind für ihre kurzweilige Darstellung komplexer Themen und für brillante Rhetorik – kurz ihr erfolgreiches „Infotainment“ – bekannt geworden. Die erste Konferenz wurde 1984 veranstaltet. Ab 1990 verstetigte sich die TED Konferenz als jährliche Veranstaltung in Long Beach, Kalifornien. Seit 2006 werden ausgewählte Vorträge online zugänglich gemacht. Mittlerweile existieren mehrere Ableger, z.B. TEDx, TEDGlobal, TED-Ed und andere. Die Videos der Organisation sind so erfolgreich und stilprägend, dass sogar Ratgeber zur Rhetorik im TED-Stil des Storytellings erschienen sind (Edelkraut und Balzer 2016). Auch im Unterricht kann das Format eines TED-Talks als Vorbild genutzt werden, um Präsentationstechniken zu reflektieren und praktisch einzuüben. Zugleich wird Kritik bezüglich des Einkommensmodels der Organisation laut: Trotz hohen Einkünften aus Ticket-Preisen werden Redner*innen und Übersetzer*innen nicht bezahlt. Auch die Verherrlichung von Technologie und die Idealisierung eines/einer öffentlichkeitswirksamen Intellektuellen durch das Format wird kritisiert: Der/die Wissenschaftler*in wird zum Konsumobjekt und habe so nicht nur den Strukturen der akademischen Forschung, sondern auch den Zwängen der Konsumwelt zu gehorchen (Shumar 2016). Auch die Auswirkungen von amplifizierter Sichtbarkeit von nicht-akademischen Stimmen, insbesondere im Bereich der Technologie, gegenüber von wissenschaftlichen Ergebnissen kann kritisch betrachtet werden (Jurgenson 2012). Diese Problematik kann am Beispiel von Eric X. Lis Vortrag verdeutlicht werden: Eric X. Li ist Unternehmer, sein Vortrag wurde schon über drei Millionen Mal aufgerufen – Huang Yashengs wissenschaftliche Kritik im Format eines Blogbeitrages bzw. die Diskussion in den Seiten der Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs ist wohl kaum von ähnlich Vielen wahrgenommen worden. Viele der Nachteile, die in der hier dargestellten Form von Demokratie beschrieben sind, treffen eher auf angloamerikanische Systeme zu. Ihnen wird in Deutschland oft schon mit meritokratischen Elementen, indirekter Repräsentation, der Einschränkung direkter Demokratie und dem im Mehrparteiensystem unerlässlichen Kompromissstreben Rechnung getragen. (Odila Schröder, 30.4.2021) Verwendete Literatur 2596022
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Berggruen, Nicolas und Nathan Gardels. 2013. Klug regieren: Politik für das 21. Jahrhundert. Übers. von Heike Schlatterer. Freiburg ; Basel ; Wien: Herder. Zitieren
Eine abgeschwächte Variante der Meritokratie-These findet sich in diesem Buch des deutsch-amerikanischen Unternehmers und Gründer des Berggruen China Centers Nicolas Berggruen und des Journalisten Herausgebers des Noema Magazins und Mitgründes des Berggruen China Centers, Nathan Gardels.
Carlson, Benjamin. 2013. When a TED talk is a propaganda tool. Salon. 8. November. https://www.salon.com/2013/08/11/ted_talk_is_propaganda_tool_for_chinese_communism_partner/ (zugegriffen: 21. April 2021). Zitieren
Edelkraut, Frank und Stephan Balzer. 2016. Inspiring! Kommunizieren im TED-Stil. Wiesbaden: Springer Gabler. Zitieren
Dieses Buch dient als Anleitung zur erfolgreichen Wissenschaftskommunikation im Stil eines TED-Talks. Darüber hinaus geht es auf die Wirkungen des Genres in Bezug auf globale Vernetzung und Innovations ein.
Huang, Yasheng. 2013. A critique of Eric X. Li’s “A tale of two political systems”. TEDBlog. 1. Juli. https://blog.ted.com/why-democracy-still-wins-a-critique-of-eric-x-lis-a-tale-of-two-political-systems/ (zugegriffen: 21. April 2021). Zitieren
Huang, Yasheng. 2013. Democratize or Die: Why China’s Communists Face Reform or Revolution Essay. Foreign Affairs 92, Nr. 1: 47–54. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/fora92&i=83 (zugegriffen: 11. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Jung, Chauncey. 2018. Even propagandist Eric X. Li falls victim to a new censorship campaign. SupChina. 14. November. https://supchina.com/2018/11/14/even-propagandist-eric-x-li-falls-victim-to-a-new-censorship-campaign/ (zugegriffen: 28. April 2021). Zitieren
Jurgenson, Nathan. 2012. Against TED. The New Inquiry. 15. Februar. https://thenewinquiry.com/against-ted/ (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
Li, Eric X. 2013. The Life of the Party: The Post-Democratic Future Begins in China Essay. Foreign Affairs 92, Nr. 1: 34–46. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/fora92&i=52 (zugegriffen: 11. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Dieser Artikel, publiziert in der renommierten Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs, kann als Grundlage und Ausführung von Eric X. Lis TED-Talk verstanden und herangezogen werden.
Shumar, Wesley. 2016. „Being TED“: The university intellectual as globalised neoliberal consumer self. Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 9, Nr. 2: 89–108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44645786 (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
O A. 2013. We need to talk about TED | Benjamin Bratton. the Guardian. 30. Dezember. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/dec/30/we-need-to-talk-about-ted (zugegriffen: 30. April 2021). Zitieren
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M2.1: Das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem (keju 科举)
Wer durfte den chinesischen Kaiser beraten? Und wie wurde man im kaiserzeitlichen China Staatsbeamter?
Nach ersten Ansätzen in der Han-Dynastie dienten seit dem siebten Jahrhundert bis zur Abschaffung des Beamtenprüfungssystems im Jahr 1905 schriftliche Prüfungen zu einem festen Bildungskanon der Auswahl von Staatsbeamten. Die Beamten, oft Mandarine genannt, sollten den Kaiser in politischen Fragen beraten. Ziel und Inhalt der Prüfungsvorbereitung war die Herausbildung einer voll der konfuzianischen Ethik verschriebenen Persönlichkeit. Im Zentrum des über die Jahrhunderte nur leicht angepassten Bildungskanons standen klassische philosophische, historiographische und literarische Schriften, darunter die der konfuzianischen Schule zugeschriebenen Fünf Klassiker (Wu Jing 五經) und Vier Bücher (Si Shu 四書). All diese Schriften mussten auswendig gelernt werden – in Summe etwas über 600.000 chinesische Zeichen. Das Auswendiglernen der Klassiker alleine bedeutete ein Studium von ca. sechs bis acht Jahren. Dazu kam die Kenntnis wichtiger Kommentare und aktueller politischer Diskussionen. Zudem mussten Prüfungsfragen in verschiedenen Textgenres beantwortet werden: z.B. in der Form klassischer Gedichte oder nach strengen Regeln und in Parallelstrukturen aufgebauter Texte – den sogenannten achtfüßigen Aufsätzen (baguwen 八股文). Auch kalligraphische und formale Standards mussten unbedingt eingehalten werden.
Die Prüfungen wurden auf allen politischen Ebenen des Reiches abgehalten, ein Kandidat arbeitete sich also vom Bezirksexamen über das Provinzexamen bis zum Palastexamen hoch. Die Teilnahme an den Prüfungen stand allen chinesischen Männern mit einigen Ausnahmen von Berufsständen wie Bordellbetreibern oder Mönchen offen. Jedoch stellte die Prüfungsvorbereitung eine große finanzielle Hürde dar – absolute Chancengleichheit bestand also nicht wirklich. Dennoch sorgte das System für eine gewisse soziale Mobilität und einen durchaus beträchtlichen Austausch von Eliten innerhalb der oberen Schichten.
Nicht nur die Vorbereitung, auch die Prüfungen selber waren mit physischen und psychischen Strapazen verbunden: Während der Qing-Dynastie bekamen die (fast) ausnahmslos männlichen Kandidaten für die drei mal drei Tage und zwei Nächte des Palastexamens eine Prüfungszelle. Essen, Schreibunterlagen und Windschutzschilder etc. mussten selbst mitgebracht werden. Viele Kandidaten kollabierten unter dem Leistungsdruck. Dabei waren ihre Erfolgschancen insgesamt extrem gering. Schon im Bezirksexamen schieden ca. 95% der Kandidaten aus. An den Prüfungen konnte jedoch wiederholt teilgenommen werden. Einige Kandidaten erlangten erst im fortgeschrittenen Alter Rang und Namen. Den erfolgreichen Kandidaten jedoch winkten extremes Prestige, Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten und zahlreiche Privilegien.
Die Durchführung dieser Examina bedeutete einen extremen Verwaltungsaufwand – von der Erstellung der Prüfungsfragen, der Durchsuchung der Kandidaten und Überwachung der tausenden Prüfungszellen, um Betrugsversuche zu identifizieren, der Abschrift der Arbeiten, um die Bevorzugung bekannter Kandidaten zu verhindern, bis hin zur mehrfachen Durchsicht der Arbeiten und Verkündigung der Ergebnisse. Doch das Prüfungssystem war nicht frei von Korruption und Betrug.
Der feste Bildungskanon und die Herausbildung einer auf das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem ausgerichteten intellektuellen Elite trug maßgeblich zur Stabilität des Kaiserreiches bei – das Prüfungssystem blieb über viele Dynastien und Fremdherrschaften hinweg erhalten. Abgeschafft wurde es erst 1905, kurz vor der Gründung der Republik. Der Fokus der Prüfungen auf philosophisches, literarisches und geschichtliches Wissen kam in die Kritik, Reformversuche und Anpassungen der Prüfungsinhalte wurden als gescheitert betrachtet. Nicht gut genug schienen die fast ausschließlich klassisch gebildeten Beamten vorbereitet auf die Herausforderungen der sich mit Kanonen ankündigenden Moderne. In Europa jedoch hatte die Kunde vom chinesischen Beamtenprüfungssystem bereits Spuren hinterlassen.
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/m-wrc-m2-1]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Titel | Datum | Quelle | Bildrechte | Objektbeschreibung | Einordnung |
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Autor: Odila Schröder | Titel: Das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem (keju 科举) | Datum: 10.06.2021 | Quelle: Odila Schröder | Rechte: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 | Objektbeschreibung: Hintergrundinformationen zum kaiserzeitlichen Beamtenprüfungssystem | Einordnung: Der Text wurde verfasst von Odila Schröder, Mitarbeiterin der China-Schul-Akademie. Er orientiert sich am aktuellen Forschungsstand zum kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungssystem (siehe: weiterführende Literatur und Forschungsperspektiven). Das Prüfungssystem änderte sich über die Jahrhunderte, die hier beschriebenen Einzelheiten beziehen sich, so nicht anders angegeben, auf die Qing-Dynastie (1644-1912). Der Bildungskanon und das Prinzip der schriftlichen Prüfungen blieben jedoch weitgehend stabil. Einen weiteren Überblick liefern die unten gelisteten Nachschlagewerke (Bastid-Bruguière 2003; B. Elman 2016). Detailinformationen zu den Beamtenprüfungen sind in einem umfangreichen und verlässlichen Wikipedia Artikel nachzulesen („Chinesische Beamtenprüfung während der Qing-Dynastie“ 2021).
Das Kadersystem der VR China wird heute häufig als direkte Fortführung kaiserzeitlicher Prüfungssysteme dargestellt. Sicherlich kann der Bezug auf die Tradition von Beamtenprüfungen eine gewisse Akzeptanz für solche Auswahlsysteme hervorrufen. Das Kadermanagementsystem der VR China steht jedoch in einer ganz anderen Tradition, nämlich der des sowjetischen Nomenklatura-Systems (zhiwu mingcheng biao zhidu 职务名称表制度) (Rigby 1988) und wurde in seiner heutigen Form erst um 1980 wiederbelebt (Manion 1985, 205–7). Zwischen der Abschaffung der kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungen 1905 und der Wiedereinführung von strengen Auswahlverfahren für Kader liegen also Jahrzehnte anderer Praktiken – in denen Klassenzugehörigkeit und politische Gesinnung oder aber persönliche Kontakte eine größere Rolle spielten als bestandene Prüfungen (Burns 2009, 39–52). Eine direkte Rückkoppelung zum kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungssystem ist also nicht gegeben. Der simple Hinweis auf historische Kontinuitäten kann heutige Auswahlsysteme also weder formal noch kulturell legitimieren. Dennoch hinterlässt das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem bis heute Spuren – nicht nur im kulturellen Gedächtnis der chinesischen Gesellschaft, sondern im chinesischen Verwaltungs- und Bildungssystem (vgl. Modul Schulsystem). Im Text ist wiederholt von Kandidaten die Rede – tatsächlich waren traditionell ausschließlich männliche Kandidaten zu den Prüfungen zugelassen. Dies schließt natürlich die Teilnahme vereinzelter weiblicher oder sich nicht als männlich identifizierender Kandidat*innen nicht aus. Eine Ausnahme stellte evt. das Beamtenprüfungssystem unter der Taiping Rebellion dar. Die konfuzianischen Klassiker und andere Texte des chinesischen Altertums, vom Daoismus bis hin zu mathematischen Schriften, sind im Chinese Text Project zusammen mit frühen englischsprachigen Übersetzungen von James Legge frei verfügbar (Sturgeon 2006–2021). Die Datenbank vermittelt einen Eindruck vom Umfang und Aufbau der Texte, die für die kaiserzeitlichen Prüfungen auswendig gelernt werden mussten. Für eine eingehendere Lektüre empfehlen wir die deutschsprachigen Übersetzungen in der Reihe „Klassiker des chinesischen Denkens“ des Herder Verlages, z.B. Konfuzius Gespräche (Konfuzius 2011). Frühe Übersetzungen der Gespräche des Konfuzius und das Buch der Riten von Richard Wilhelm (1873-1930), einem der Urväter der deutschsprachigen Sinologie, sind frei verfügbar (Wilhelm 1975; 1981). Zu den linguistischen Aspekten des Beamtenprüfungssystems: Die konfuzianischen Klassiker sind in klassischem Chinesisch (wenyanwen 文言文) verfasst. Funktional ist klassisches Chinesisch vergleichbar mit Latein als lingua franca (B. A. Elman 2000, 373). Chinesische Zeichen sind zwar unabhängig von ihrer Aussprache in verschiedenen Dialekten lesbar, jedoch entfernten sich Umgangs- und Schriftsprache mit der Zeit immer weiter voneinander (Diglossie). Zudem entstand eine „Beamtensprache“ (guanhua 官話), die sich an der Schriftsprache der Hauptstadt (zwischen 1415-1421 verlegt von Nanjing 南京 nach Beijing 北京) und damit an den nordchinesischen Dialekten orientierte und insbesondere von Prüfungskandidaten aus Südchina erlernt werden musste (B. A. Elman 2000, 373–75). Die klassische Schriftsprache und der konfuzianische Bildungskanon sorgten über Jahrhunderte für gesellschaftlichen Zusammenhalt. Doch im späten 19. Jahrhundert wurden die als starr empfundenen formalen Anforderungen der Beamtenprüfungen und ausbleibende Reformen der Prüfungsinhalte zunehmend für die Souveränitätsverluste Chinas verantwortlich gemacht. Der Ruf nach Modernisierung der Schriftsprache und der Einfluss von umgangssprachlicheren Publikationen und Übersetzungen anderssprachiger Werke führte im späten 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert zur umfassenden Reform der chinesischen Schriftsprache. Der Prozess der Sprachreformen ist Gegenstand umfangreicher linguistischer und historischer Forschung (Kaske 2007). Die vom chinesischen Verwaltungssystem umfassend erfassten biografischen Daten zu kaiserzeitlichen Beamten sind bis heute erhalten. Die China Biographical Database umfasst Daten zu knapp 500.000 Individuen, meist chinesische Elitenangehörige, die zwischen dem 7. und 19. Jahrhundert aktiv waren (Harvard University, Academia Sinica, und Peking University 2021). Diese Daten ermöglichen den Einblick in geografische Verschiebungen, soziale Netzwerke, intellektuelle Kontakte und persönliche Entwicklungen. (Odila Schröder, 11.5.2021) Verwendete Literatur 2596022
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Burns, John P., Hrsg. 1989. The Chinese Communist Party’s Nomenklatura System: a Documentary Study of Party Control of Leadership Selection, 1979-1984. Chinese Studies on China. Armonk: Sharpe. Zitieren
Burns, John P. 2009. The Chinese Communist Party’s nomenklatura system as a leadership selections mechanism. In: The Chinese Communist Party in reform, hg. von Erik Brodsgaard Kjeld und Yongnian Zheng, 35–58. Digital print. Routledge studies on the Chinese economy ; 21. London (u.a.]: Routledge. Zitieren
John P Burns identifiziert mehrere Phasen, in denen das Nomanklaturasystem nicht effizient der Auswahl qualifizierter Kader gedient hat: Die Kulturrevolution, 1952-1953, Mitte der 1980er Jahre und in den 1990er Jahren. Burns sieht die primäre Funktion des Systems im Selbsterhalt und zeigt, dass das System selbst in Zeiten relativer Sicherheit – insbesondere aufgrund weitverbreiteter Korruption – nicht effiziert funktioniert hat.
Chen, Ting, James Kai-sing Kung und Chicheng Ma. 2020. Long Live Keju! The Persistent Effects of China’s Civil Examination System. The Economic Journal 130, Nr. 631 (16. Oktober): 2030–2064. http://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueaa043, https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/130/631/2030/5819954 (zugegriffen: 21. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
De Weerdt, Hilde Godelieve Dominique. 2007. Competition over content: negotiating standards for the civil service examinations in imperial China (1127-1279). Harvard East Asian monographs 289. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Asia Center : Distributed by Harvard University Press. Zitieren
De Weerdt, Hilde Godelieve Dominique. 2022. The Chinese Civil Examinations. INFERENCE 7, Nr. 3. https://inference-review.com/article/the-chinese-civil-examinations?fbclid=IwAR0Fe8IKRJ1HdsSx2q5SGI_S0Vb0AaPl1mMSeA-x-msngviyEL6hagax3qg. Zitieren
Drucker, Alison R. 1981. The Influence of Western Women on the Anti-Footbinding Movement 1840-1911. Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques 8, Nr. 3: 179–199. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298767 (zugegriffen: 24. Juni 2021). Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2000. A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press. Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2013. Civil examinations and meritocracy in late Imperial China. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: Harvard Univ. Press. http://katalog.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/titel/67688032. Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 1991. Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China. The Journal of Asian Studies 50, Nr. 1: 7–28. http://doi.org/10.2307/2057472, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2057472 (zugegriffen: 23. Dezember 2020). Zitieren
Elman, Benjamin A. 2009. Civil Service Examinations. In: Berkshire Encyclopedia of China, 1:405–410. Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Publishing Group. Zitieren
Die englischsprachige Berkshire Encyclopedia of China richtet sich an die interessierte Öffentlichkeit. Der Artikel ist von Benjamin Elman verfasst, einem anerkannten Spezialisten für das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem. Der Artikel enhält auch ein berühmtes Zitat des Qing-zeitlichen Prüfungskandidaten und Schriftstellers Pu Songling, das die Strapazen der Prüfungen besonders farbig illustriert.
Harvard University, Academia Sinica und Peking University. 2021. China Biographical Database Project (CBDB). https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/cbdb/home (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
Heilmann, Sebastian und Sarah Kirchberger. 2000. Chinas politische Führungsschicht im Wandel: Personalstatistiken der ZK-Organisationsabteilung erstmals zugänglich. China aktuell: 499–507. http://doi.org/10.11588/chakt.2000.Mai.10840, https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/chakt/article/view/10840 (zugegriffen: 15. März 2021). Zitieren
Erste Analyse der 1999 veröffentlichten Statistiken der Organisationsabteilung der KPCh über den Zeitraum 1949-1999.
Klaschka, Siegfried. 2000. Glücklich, wer Beamter ist. Die Zeit, 13. Juli, Abschn. Gesellschaft. https://www.zeit.de/2000/29/Gluecklich_wer_Beamter_ist/komplettansicht (zugegriffen: 1. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Siegfried Klaschka ist Sinologe an der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg mit besonderem Interesse an Korruption im alten China.
Konfuzius. 2011. Gespräche. Übers. von Wolfgang Kubin. Originalausgabe. Klassiker des chinesischen Denkens. Freiburg ; Basel ; Wien: Herder. Zitieren
Was haben Klassiker der chinesischen Philosophie wie zum Beispiel Konfuzius tatsächlich gesagt? Das lässt sich in den Übersetzungen von Wolfgang Kubin in der Reihe “Klassiker des Chinesischen Denkens” im Herder Verlag nachlesen. Neben den deutschen Übersetzungen und den chinesischen Originaltexten ausgewählter Stellen kommentiert Kubin diese und erklärt deren Bedeutung. Weitere Bücher der Reihe finden Sie unter: https://www.herder.de/religion-spiritualitaet-shop/klassiker-des-chinesischen-denkens-kartonierte-ausgabe/c-38/p-18032/
Miyazaki, Ichisada. 1981. China’s Examination Hell: The Civil Service Examinations of Imperial China. Yale University Press. Zitieren
Sturgeon Donald. 2006. Chinese Text Project. https://ctext.org/ (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
Wilhelm, Richard. 1975. Lunyu – Gespräche. http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Kong+Fu+Zi+(Konfuzius)/Lunyu+-+Gespr%C3%A4che (zugegriffen: 2. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Wilhelm, Richard. 1981. Li Gi. Das Buch der Riten, Sitten und Gebräuche. http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Anonym/Li+Gi+-+Das+Buch+der+Riten,+Sitten+und+Gebr%C3%A4uche (zugegriffen: 2. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Zhang, Yongle. 2018. The Historical Sources of China’s Political Meritocracy. Politics and Religion 11, Nr. 4 (Dezember): 888–891. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1755048318000664, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/historical-sources-of-chinas-political-meritocracy-the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy-2015-2016-by-daniel-a-bell-princeton-princeton-university-press-336-pp-3095-cloth-1995-paper/D7E1276A4F273E6DD5F4C6D99B7B5BDB (zugegriffen: 7. Januar 2021). Zitieren
In diesem Review von Daniel Bells Buch “The China Model” wird der direkte Rückbezug Bells auf die “Konfuzianische Tradition” der Auswahl von Beamten kritisiert und auf den Einfluss sowjietischer Vorbilder verwiesen.
O A. 2021. Chinesische Beamtenprüfung während der Qing-Dynastie. In: Wikipedia. 10. März. https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinesische_Beamtenpr%C3%BCfung_w%C3%A4hrend_der_Qing-Dynastie&oldid=209654080 (zugegriffen: 11. Mai 2021). Zitieren
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Zuordnung: Lerneinheit 2Vergleichen Sie Eric X. Lis Darstellung von Chinas heutigem System der Beamtenrekrutierung durch die Organisationsabteilung der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) mit dem kaiserzeitlichen Beamtenprüfungssystem.-
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