Thematische Einführung
Wer regiert China und wer hat China früher regiert? Wie blicken wir auf das politische System der Volksrepublik China (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo 中华人民共和国, kurz: VR China)? Und wie haben Europäer vor einigen hundert Jahren auf das Kaiserreich China geblickt? Lehnen wir das politische System als autoritär ab oder hat China vielleicht sogar das „überlegene“ System (Hirn 24.06.2015)? Aufhänger für dieses Modul ist ein TED-Talk von Eric X. Li (Li Shimo 李世默), einem erfolgreichen Unternehmer und Investor aus Shanghai 上海, der regelmäßig in US-amerikanischen Zeitschriften publiziert (M1.2). Li versteht die VR China als politische Meritokratie – ein Staat also, in dem nicht nur Verwaltungsbeamte und Berater*innen nach einem individuellen Leistungsprinzip ausgewählt und befördert werden (administrative Meritokratie), sondern auch Politiker*innen – die strenge Prüfungen ablegen und erst mit langjähriger Erfahrung in die höchsten Führungsämter aufsteigen (Li 2013). Eric X. Li verweist außerdem auf die lange Tradition der Meritokratie in China und die extrem hohe Zustimmung in der Bevölkerung, die das politische System laut Umfragedaten genießt.
Lis Argumentation gleicht damit der einer Reihe von chinesischen, US-amerikanischen und deutschen Intellektuellen, die das „Modell China“ als Inspiration für den Umgang mit strukturellen Problemen demokratischer Systeme in den politischen Diskurs einbringen. Dabei wird das politische System der VR Chinas als politische Meritokratie und „Modell“ für die Zukunft verstanden. Der Begriff wurde geprägt von Daniel A. Bell, ein unter anderem an der renommierten Tsinghua Universität (Qinghua Daxue 清华大学) in Beijing 北京 tätiger Philosoph und Intellektueller, der das Konzept in seinem Buch The China Model systematisch ausgearbeitet hat (Bell 2015) (vgl. Forschungsperspektiven). Leitfrage für dieses Modul ist also die Frage, ob das politische System der VR China der Vision einer politischen Meritokratie gerecht wird und ob ein solches System erstrebenswert ist.
Positive Assoziationen mit dem „Leistungsprinzip“ einer Meritokratie scheinen auch in seriösen europäischen Zeitungen eine gewisse Sogkraft zu entwickeln, wie sich an diesen Titeln aus bekannten europäischen und US-amerikanischen Tageszeitungen und Magazinen zeigen lässt (vgl. M1.1). Zudem gaben über 37% der Befragten in einer repräsentativen Umfrage in Deutschland 2017-2018 an, ein politisches System, in dem Expert*innen die Entscheidungen treffen, „gut“ oder sogar „sehr gut“ zu finden (Haerpfer u. a. 2020). Selbst wenn wir schlussendlich die Charakterisierung des politischen System Chinas als Meritokratie als Augenwischerei und Verschleierung eines autokratischen Systems abtun, sollten wir versuchen solche Argumente in ihrer historischen Dimension zu erfassen und als Herausforderung zur Stärkung unseres Demokratiebewusstseins ernst zu nehmen.
In ihrer Argumentation (vgl. M1.2, M7 und M8) beziehen sich Befürworter*innen der Meritokratie-These insbesondere auf das Kadermanagementsystem der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh) und seine „meritokratischen“ Aspekte: Angehende Staatsdiener*innen und Politiker*innen absolvieren strenge Prüfungen, die neben der kognitiven Leistungsfähigkeit und umfangreichem Allgemein- und Fachwissen auch politische und ideologische Fragen prüfen. Im Laufe ihrer Karriere werden Kader von der Organisationsabteilung der KPCh (Zhongguo Gongchandang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui Zuzhibu 中国共产党中央委员会组织部) regelmäßig bewertet und entsprechend interner Kriterien befördert. Diese erfassen die Erfüllung wirtschaftlicher und politischer Zielsetzungen, aber auch ideologische Konformität und persönliche Integrität der jeweiligen Kader oder einer gesamten Abteilung. Als Vorteile einer solchen „leistungsorientierten“ Auswahl der politischen Elite und eines Systems, das nicht dem demokratischen Prinzip „eine Person eine Stimme“ gehorcht, werden die langfristige Planbarkeit von politischen Zielen, die Möglichkeit der Repräsentation von Nichtwähler*innen, die Vermeidung von Populismus und die Konsensorientiertheit angepriesen. Dem gegenübergestellt werden strukturelle Probleme demokratischer Systeme – insbesondere des US-amerikanischen Systems – wie die Anfälligkeit für Populismus, die Folgen kurzsichtiger Entscheidungen und die Spaltung der Gesellschaft durch „Dauerwahlkampf“, ausbleibende Reformen, der überproportionale Einfluss von finanziell einflussreichen Individuen oder Interessengruppen, die fehlende Zukunftsorientierung und Berücksichtigung von Nichtwählern, z.B. zukünftiger Generationen oder vulnerabler Gruppen sowie die Ineffizienz bürokratischer Prozesse (Bell 2015, 14–150). Dem Erfolg des „Modell China“ steht also eine „Krise der Demokratie“ gegenüber.
Während eine solche Gegenüberstellung klar eine Systemrivalität suggeriert, wird insbesondere von chinesischer Seite zurückhaltender von Systempluralismus gesprochen (vgl. M1.2, M7 und M8). Nicht für die Ablösung von demokratischen Idealen durch eine Vision der politischen Meritokratie wird geworben, sondern für die Akzeptanz einer politischen Meritokratie als legitime Alternative in einer pluralistischen, globalisierten Welt. Die Konfrontation mit solchen Argumenten fordert uns angesichts der Schwachstellen auch demokratischer Systeme heraus die Vor- und Nachteile und Entwicklungspotentiale von Elementen beider Systeme zu überdenken.
Dabei sind sich viele Vertreter*innen des „Modell China“ der Diskrepanz zwischen der hier präsentierten Vision einer politischen Meritokratie und den Realitäten des chinesischen politischen Systems in Hinblick auf Korruption, Datenmanipulation, Chancenungleichheit und ideologiebasierte Auswahlkriterien durchaus bewusst (Bell 2015, 110–50). Kritiker*innen der politischen Meritokratie und des dem System zugrundeliegenden Leistungsprinzips stellen die folgenden Aspekte in Frage: 1. die objektive Messbarkeit von Leistung, 2. die Intransparenz der Bewertungskriterien, 3. die individualisierte Bewertung von Leistung und damit verbundener Verlust von Leistungspotentialen anderer Menschen, 4. die Annahme von Chancengleichheit, welche soziale Ungerechtigkeiten und damit verbundene Ausschlussprinzipien ausblendet, sowie 5. die Fokussierung auf das Endprodukt der Leistung (Gruber 2015, 17–18). Zudem wird darauf hingewiesen, dass die Idee einer politischen Meritokratie auf einem Menschenbild basiert, welches dem eines autonomen, eigenverantwortlichen Individuums diametral entgegengesetzt ist (Müller-Hofstede 2021).
Handelt es sich also bei heutigen Darstellungen des chinesischen Systems um gewinnbringende Alternativvorschläge, die zur Verbesserung demokratischer Systeme beitragen können? Oder dient eine verklärte Darstellung des „Modell China“ nur der Verwirklichung autokratischer Phantasien und dem Wunsch nach Effizienz und beständigem Wachstum? Die folgenden vier Ansatzpunkte für Kritik an der Meritokratie-These werden in diesem Modul entwickelt:
- Sozio-kulturelle Argumente, die auf Chinas lange „meritokratische“ Tradition hinweisen, werden zurückgewiesen. In M2 wird das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem (keju 科舉) vorgestellt und seine Vorbildfunktion für die moderne europäische Verwaltung erarbeitet. Das kaiserzeitliche Beamtenprüfungssystem bot in den Augen früher europäischer Staatstheoretiker Anhaltspunkte für politische Reformen im Sinne eines leistungsorientierten politischen Systems. Es kann also gezeigt werden, dass die Projektion von eigenen politischen Vorstellungen auf China und eine zuweilen überzogen positive Darstellung von Chinas politischem System als Meritokratie eine lange Geschichte hat. In einigen Darstellungen des „Modell China“ wird zudem eine falsche Kontinuität zwischen dem kaiserzeitlichen Beamtenprüfungssystem und der heutigen Praxis der Beamtenrekrutierung und -beförderung suggeriert: Das heutige Beamtenrekrutierungs-, Bewertungs- und Beförderungssystem entspringt jedoch dem sowjetischen Nomenklatura-System (zhiwu mingcheng biao zhidu 职务名称表制度) (Rigby 1988) und wurde in seiner heutigen Form erst um 1980 wiederbelebt (Manion 1985, 205–7). Behauptungen über die Kontinuität des Systems von der Kaiserzeit bis in die Gegenwart sind also nicht haltbar.
- In L2 werden die Auswahl- und Bewertungskriterien der politischen Elite der VR China heute beleuchtet. Da die Auswahl- und Beförderungskriterien Loyalität gegenüber der Partei und Systemerhalt besonders berücksichtigen, werden diese unserem Verständnis einer leistungsorientierten Auswahl, gemessen an akademischen Standards und politischer Erfahrung und einem Streben nach Allgemeinwohl, nicht gerecht. Anhand von Statistiken kann gezeigt werden, dass die Auswahl nicht der Repräsentation der Gesamtbevölkerung dient oder die Förderung herausragender Persönlichkeiten fördert (Burns 2007; Heilmann, Shih, und Hepp 2016, 100–108).
- Korruption wird auch von den Vertreter*innen der Meritokratie-These als Haupthindernis der Verwirklichung ihrer meritokratischen Vision anerkannt. In L4 wird daher ein Blick auf die Praxis der Datenmanipulation geworfen. Der Politikwissenschaftler Sebastian Heilmann notiert: „Sehr anfällig ist die quantitative Leistungsmessung allerdings für die Manipulation von Ergebnis- und Datenberichten (etwa in der Wirtschafts-, Sozial- oder Umweltstatistik), die zu systematischen Verzerrungen und Beschönigungen von Evaluationsergebnissen genutzt werden können.“ (Heilmann u. a. 2016, 304) Doch das bestehende System wird kontinuierlich weiterentwickelt und verbessert. Es wird in seiner Effektivität zunehmend dem Ideal gerecht (vgl. hierzu die Hintergrundinformationen im Modul „https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/lernmodule/china-unter-der-lupe/“). Eine Argumentation gegen eine politische Meritokratie kann sich also nicht rein auf „noch nicht funktionierende“ Elemente des Systems der VR China stützen, sondern muss tiefer ansetzen. Zum Beispiel bei systemimmanenten Problemen wie der Gefahr der Machtmonopolisierung oder der Abhängigkeit von Repression (vgl. M4.2 und M5.2).
- Umfragen, die eine überwältigende Zufriedenheit der Bevölkerung der VR China mit der Regierung suggerieren, können einer ebenso positiven Einstellung gegenüber Demokratie und einer negativen Einstellung gegenüber Expertenherrschaft gegenübergestellt werden. „Meritokratie“ als Ideal wird in der VR China selbst nicht in der Form diskutiert wie von den prominenten Vertreter*innen des „Modell China“. Demokratie hingegen stellt im politischen Diskurs nach wie vor ein Ideal und Ziel eines Entwicklungsprozesses dar. Umstritten ist jedoch, in welcher Form demokratische Elemente in das politische System aufgenommen werden sollen oder schon Teil des Systems sind – was den Demokratiebegriff teilweise extrem ausdehnt (Drinhausen 2021). In L5 werden außerdem der Einfluss von eingeschränkter Meinungsfreiheit, Möglichkeiten der politischen Partizipation und das Angewiesensein der Regierung der VR China auf Rückmeldungsmechanismen aus der Bevölkerung gezeigt.
Verwendete Literatur
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Eine abgeschwächte Variante der Meritokratie-These findet sich in diesem Buch des deutsch-amerikanischen Unternehmers und Gründer des Berggruen China Centers Nicolas Berggruen und des Journalisten Herausgebers des Noema Magazins und Mitgründes des Berggruen China Centers, Nathan Gardels.
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John P Burns identifiziert mehrere Phasen, in denen das Nomanklaturasystem nicht effizient der Auswahl qualifizierter Kader gedient hat: Die Kulturrevolution, 1952-1953, Mitte der 1980er Jahre und in den 1990er Jahren. Burns sieht die primäre Funktion des Systems im Selbsterhalt und zeigt, dass das System selbst in Zeiten relativer Sicherheit – insbesondere aufgrund weitverbreiteter Korruption – nicht effiziert funktioniert hat.
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Die englischsprachige Berkshire Encyclopedia of China richtet sich an die interessierte Öffentlichkeit. Der Artikel ist von Benjamin Elman verfasst, einem anerkannten Spezialisten für das kaiserzeitliche Prüfungssystem. Der Artikel enhält auch ein berühmtes Zitat des Qing-zeitlichen Prüfungskandidaten und Schriftstellers Pu Songling, das die Strapazen der Prüfungen besonders farbig illustriert.
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Umfasst Hintergruninformationen zur Ideengeschichte des Leistungsprinzips und Meritokratie.
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Li, Eric X. 2013.
Zwei politische Systeme. TEDGlobal.
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Li, Eric X. 2013. The Life of the Party: The Post-Democratic Future Begins in China Essay.
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Dieser Artikel, publiziert in der renommierten Zeitschrift Foreign Affairs, kann als Grundlage und Ausführung von Eric X. Lis TED-Talk verstanden und herangezogen werden.
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Müller-Hofstede, Christoph. 2021. Zwischen Systemkonkurrenz und Dialogbereitschaft. China(kompetenz) in der politischen Bildung.
Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (APuZ), Nr. 7–8 (12. Februar).
https://m.bpb.de/apuz/326881/chinakompetenz-in-der-politischen-bildung (zugegriffen: 15. Februar 2021).
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Nathan, Andrew J. 2015. The Problem With the China Model.
ChinaFile. 5. November.
https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/problem-china-model (zugegriffen: 11. Dezember 2020).
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In diesem Blogbeitrag stellt der renommierte Politikwissenschaftler und Experte für Chinas Parteistaat Andrew Nathan das von Daniel Bell im Buch The China Model entworfene System einer politischen Meritokratie in Frage.
Noesselt, Nele. 2012. Die Analyse der chinesischen Politik: Annäherungen an das „chinesische Modell“. In:
Governance-Formen in China, 33–68. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-00723-2_2,
http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-658-00723-2_2 (zugegriffen: 17. Mai 2021).
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Shih, Victor. 2020. CCP Elite Database.
China Data Lab.
https://chinadatalab.ucsd.edu/elites/ (zugegriffen: 3. Februar 2021).
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