China und das Ausland im Spiegel chinesischer Karikaturen
M1.1: „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) – Chinesische Karikatur um 1899
Jonas Schmid 12.10.2021
M1.1: „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) – Chinesische Karikatur um 1899
Die folgende Karikatur wurde um das Jahr 1899 von einem politisch engagierten Chinesen aus Hong Kong veröffentlicht und gibt Aufschluss über die Beziehungen zwischen China und dem Ausland um das Jahr 1900 aus einer chinesischen Perspektive.
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Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Titel | Verlag | Datum | Rechte | Einordnung |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Autor*in: Tse Tsan Tai (moderne Umschrift: Xie Zuantai 謝纘泰) | Titel: „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) | Verlag: Unbekannt | Entstehungsdatum & -ort: vermutlich in Japan um 1899 | Bildrechte: Gemeinfrei Online unter: https://zh.m.wikipedia.org/zh-hans/時局圖 (02.08.2021) | Einordnung: Zwischen Großbritanniens Sieg im Opiumkrieg 1842 und dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs und der japanischen Besatzung in China 1945 waren die Beziehungen zwischen China und der Welt stark asymmetrisch. Durch Waffengewalt sowie politischen und wirtschaftlichen Druck zwangen ausländische Staaten (darunter viele Staaten Westeuropas, Russland, die USA und später auch Japan) China zu Verträgen, die Chinas Souveränität in Wirtschaft und Politik stark einschränkten. Gleichzeitig errichteten sie in China Kolonien und Einflussgebiete. Die Karikatur „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) kritisiert zum einen dieses Vorgehen der ausländischen Staaten, zum anderen die Tatenlosigkeit und Rückständigkeit der Qing-Regierung angesichts der Bedrohung von außen. Dieser Einordnungstext gibt einen knappen Überblick über zwei verschiedene Varianten der Karikatur „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖), erläutert die abgebildeten Figuren und den historischen Hintergrund und geht kurz auf die Rezeption und Bedeutung dieser Karikatur in China bis heute ein.
Verschiedene Ausgaben Am 19. Juli 1899 erschien in der britischen Kolonie Hongkong eine schwarz-weiße Vorgängerversion der hier vorgestellten Karikatur mit dem chinesischen Titel „Ein umfassendes Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju quantu 時局全圖) und dem englischen Titel „Die Situation im Fernen Osten“ (The Situation in the Far East). Als Autor wird auf der Karikatur Tse Tsan Tai (moderne Umschrift: Xie Zuantai 謝纘泰, lebte von 1872–1937) genannt. (Wagner 2011, 11)
Erläuterung der Karikatur Durch ihre große Schrift fällt als erstes der Titel der Karikatur – „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) – ins Auge. Neben der Abbildung steht außerdem links und rechts der Satz „ohne Worte begreifbar und auf einen Blick zu verstehen“ (bu yan er yu, yi mu liaoran不言而喻, 一目了然). Im Mittelpunkt der Karikatur steht eine Karte Ostasiens mit China als Zentrum. Das Gebiet der Qing-Dynastie in China ist grün hinterlegt, die Gebiete der umgebenden Staaten sind durch andere Farben markiert. Verschiedene Tiere und eine Sonne symbolisieren ausländische Staaten, die sich auf dem Territorium Chinas oder in der Nähe befinden.
Die Karikatur übt zum einen Kritik an den ausländischen (als Tiere dargestellten) Staaten, zum anderen aber auch an der Beamtenschaft der Qing-Dynastie . Die Qing-Dynastie wurde von der ethnischen Gruppe der Mandschuren gegründet und beherrschte seit 1644 die mehrheitlich von Han-Chines*innen bevölkerten Gebiete Chinas sowie weitere dünn-besiedelte Gebiete nördlich und westlich von Kernchina. In den revolutionären Kreisen, zu denen auch der Zeichner der Karikatur Tse Tsan Tai gehörte, war in den Jahren um 1900 ein Hass auf die Mandschuren als Fremdherrscher weitverbreitet. Diese galten als Fremdherrscher, die es (auch mit Gewalt) abzusetzen galt. Auf der Karikatur im Herzen Chinas ist ein schlafender Beamter der Qing-Dynastie abgebildet. In dem hier nicht abgedruckten kantonesischen Begleittext der Karikatur wird dieser als Beamter beschrieben, der sich nicht um die wichtigen Dinge kümmert. (Wagner 2011, 21; Wang 2005, 74) In seiner rechten Hand hält er ein Netz, in dem sich die (Han-)chinesische Bevölkerung gefangen befindet. Beispielhaft wird ein Gelehrter dargestellt, der ebenfalls über einem Buch eingeschlafen ist. Hier klingt Kritik am kaiserlichen Beamtenprüfungssystem an: Auf den Seiten des aufgeschlagenen Buches stehen vier Zeichen der klassischen Schriftsprache (zhi hu ye zhe 之乎也者), die als sinnlose Vierwortphrase in dieser Zeit karikierend zusammengenommen für die Wortklauberei und Sinnlosigkeit der in den Beamtenprüfungen verwendeten klassischen Schriftsprache stehen. Durch die Vorbereitungen auf die Beamtenprüfungen werden die gebildeten Schichten also eher eingelullt – auch sie liegen in einem metaphorischen Schlaf und sehen nicht, was in China vor sich geht. Im Netz gefangen sind auch die einfachen Leute, die mit veralteten militärischen Methoden (hier das Steineheben) trainiert werden. (Wagner 2011, 21)
Autor und Hintergrund Der Autor der vorliegenden Karikatur Tse Tsan Tai Tai (moderne Umschrift: Xie Zuantai 謝纘泰) wurde 1879 in New Youth Wales, Australien geboren. Im Alter von acht Jahren zog Tses Familie nach Hongkong, wo er eine englischsprachige Schule besuchte und eine Arbeitsstelle in der Verwaltung der britischen Kronkolonie Hongkong annahm. Als junger Mann bewegte Tse sich in den Hongkonger Kreisen, die sich für eine Revolution gegen die Qing-Dynastie einsetzten. 1892 gründete er mit anderen eine revolutionär-patriotische Vereinigung, die sich 1895 mit der von Sun Yatsen (1866–1925) und anderen gegründeten „Vereinigung für die Wiederbelebung Chinas“ (Xing Zhonghui 興中會) zusammenschloss. Tse war an dem – allerdings gescheiterten – Versuch der „Vereinigung für die Wiederbelebung Chinas“, 1895 im benachbarten Guangzhou 廣州 einen Aufstand gegen die Qing-Dynastie durchzuführen und an der Planung weiterer Aufstände beteiligt. (Noonan 2006; Wagner 2011, 90–92) Mit seinem fließenden Englisch und Chinesisch blieb er ein Leben lang – auch nach der Revolution 1911 und der Gründung der Republik China – in Hongkong, wo er 1903 auch mit einem britischen Geschäftsmann die bis heute bestehende Zeitung South China Morning Post gründete.
Die Aussage von Tses Karikatur kann beispielhaft verstanden werden für die Ansichten der chinesischen Revolutionäre um 1900. Diese kritisierten einerseits den Wettlauf ausländischer Staaten um koloniale Pachtgebiete und wirtschaftlichen Einfluss in China, machten andererseits aber auch die mandschurische Qing-Regierung für die Machtlosigkeit Chinas angesichts ausländischer Aggression verantwortlich. Sie sahen nur in einer gewaltvollen Revolution, die die Herrschaft der Mandschu beenden sollte, die Chance China wiederzubeleben und wiedererstarken zu lassen. (Bergère 1998, 49–55) So ist zu erklären, dass die Karikatur sich nicht nur gegen das Ausland, sondern auch gegen die mandschurische Qing-Regierung richtet. (Mittler 2004, 35; Wagner 2011, 21)
In der vorliegenden Karikatur vermischen sich außerdem zwei metaphorische Motive, die um das Jahr 1900 herum in China an Einfluss gewannen und im kulturellen Gedächtnis Chinas bis heute eine große Rolle spielen: Erstens das schlafende China, das es aufzuwecken gilt; zweitens das Vorgehen der ausländischen Mächte, die China unter sich aufteilen.
Die zweite wirkmächtige Symbolik, auf die die Karikatur Bezug nimmt, ist der Diskurs der Aufteilung Chinas durch ausländische Mächte. (Wagner 2017) Der Wunsch oder sogar Wettlauf nach Aufteilung von Gebieten weltweit durch westliche Staaten war in den letzten beiden Jahrzehnten des 19. Jahrhunderts immer wieder präsent: Nach der Afrika-Konferenz in Berlin 1884, bei der die „Aufteilung Afrikas“ unter den Kolonialmächten beschlossen wurde, gerieten als nächstes die Türkei und dann China als Objekte der kolonialen Aufteilungsfantasien in den Fokus. (Wagner 2017, 46) Viele europäische und US-amerikanische Zeitschriften veröffentlichten Karikaturen, die die Aufteilung Chinas zeigten. (Wagner 2017, 80–98) In fast jedem deutschen Schulbuch, das die chinesische Geschichte im 19. Jahrhundert behandelt, sind einzelne dieser Karikaturen bis heute abgebildet. China erscheint in diesen Karikaturen zumeist (in Anlehnung an frühere Darstellungen der Teilung Polens im späten 18. Jahrhundert) als Kuchen, den ausländische Staaten untereinander aufzuteilen versuchen und dabei in Streit zu geraten scheinen. All diesen Darstellungen ist gemeinsam, dass China keinerlei Handlungsspielraum gegeben wird – China ist reines Objekt der ausländischen Begierden. Der Fokus der Karikaturen liegt dabei meistens auf den Streitigkeiten zwischen den ausländischen Staaten über die Aufteilung Chinas.
Rezeption und Nachleben Die Karikatur „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖) wurde in den Jahren nach ihrem Erscheinen 1898 mehrfach abgedruckt – meist mit dem direkten Hinweis, dass die Karikatur die Gefahr der Aufteilung Chinas zeige. (Wagner 2011, 24–30) Darüber hinaus ist die Karikatur aber bis heute die in China bekannteste Darstellung der kolonialen Interessen ausländischer Staaten in China um 1900. Denn in den 1920er- und 1930er-Jahren wurde die Schwäche Chinas und die Gefahr einer Aufteilung Chinas durch ausländische Staaten zu einem wesentlichen Antrieb des chinesischen Nationalismus und verschiedene Parteien versprachen mit unterschiedlichen Programmen China wiederzubeleben und die Gefahr einer „Aufteilung Chinas wie eine Wassermelone“ zu bannen. Auch die Kommunistische Partei Chinas bemühte und bemüht weiterhin die Idee einer „Aufteilung Chinas“ als Gefahr. Jedes Mal, wenn chinesische Politiker*innen die Souveränität Chinas betonen, steht dahinter auch das Negativbeispiel der angeblichen „Aufteilung Chinas“ durch die imperialistischen Mächte um 1900. Symbolisch steht hierfür die Karikatur „Ein Bild der aktuellen Lage“ (Shiju tu 時局圖), die auch im aktuellen chinesischen Geschichtsschulbuch (seit 2017 gibt es landesweit wieder nur ein offizielles Geschichtschulbuch) für die achte Klasse abgedruckt ist und die daher fast jede*r in der Volksrepublik China kennt. (Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe 2017, 27) Dabei übergeht das offizielle Narrativ der Volksrepublik China, dass es trotz der erzwungenen Einrichtung von Kolonien und Pachtgebieten sowie der Durchsetzung wirtschaftlicher Interessen ausländischer Staaten nie zu einer tatsächlichen Aufteilung Chinas kam. (Wagner 2017, 118–121) Ausführlichere Informationen zum Imperialismus in China sind in unserer Zeitleiste und in unserem Lernmodul zum Kolonialismus in China zu finden. (Jonas Schmid, 09.08.2021)
Verwendete Literatur
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