China unter der Lupe
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Lerneinheit 1: Was ist China?1 Material|2 Aufgaben
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Lerneinheit 2: China-Quiz1 Material|1 Aufgabe
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Lerneinheit 3: China-Recherche1 Material|2 Aufgaben
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Ergänzende Materialien13 Materialien
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Statistiken aus der Volksrepublik China
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Volksrepublik China: Naturräume
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Größenvergleich Deutschland und Volksrepublik China
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Die zehn bevölkerungsreichsten Städte der Volksrepublik China (2021)
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Bevölkerungsentwicklung EU-USA-China
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Bevölkerungspolitik und Bevölkerungsentwicklung in der Volksrepublik China
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Hochgeschwindigkeits-Schienennetz
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Infrastrukturinvestitionen in der Volksrepublik China
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Anteil der Studierenden unter 18-22 Jährigen in Deutschland und der Volksrepublik China
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Das Schulsystem in der Volksrepublik China
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Lage von Beijing und Madrid
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EU – USA – China: Anteil am weltweiten Bruttoinlandsprodukt (BIP)
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Geschlechterverteilung in Parlamenten
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Statistiken aus der Volksrepublik China
Hochgeschwindigkeits-Schienennetz
Jonas Schmid 21.11.2021
Einzelmaterial: Hochgeschwindigkeits-Schienennetz
Zur Einsicht detaillierter Quellenangaben sowie weiterführender Informationen und Literaturhinweise zum Material besuchen Sie bitte die Plattform ChinaPerspektiven. [https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/materialien/mlupe-m2-5]
Weiterführende Informationen
Autor | Titel | Quelle | Datum | Objektbeschreibung | Rechte | Einordnung |
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Autor: René Bocksch / Statista | Titel: China hat das längste Hochgeschwindigkeits-Schienennetz | Quelle: Statista https://de.statista.com/infografik/22108/laenge-genutzter-hochgeschwindigkeits-zugstrecken/ | Datum: 26.06.2020 | Objektbeschreibung: Infografik zu den zehn Ländern weltweit mit den längsten Hochgeschwindigkeits-Schienennetzen | Bildrechte: CC BY-ND 3.0 | Einordnung: Ende September 2019: In Beijing eröffnet nach vier Jahren Bauzeit der – nach Gebäudefläche – größte Flughafen der Welt. In deutschen Medien wird die pünktliche Flughafeneröffnung in Beijing positiv dem jahrelangen Hin und Her um den neuen Hauptstadtflughafen in Berlin (BER) gegenübergestellt. Dieses Beispiel steht symptomatisch für den neidischen Blick vieler in Deutschland auf die Effizienz und Schnelligkeit von Infrastrukturbauten in der Volksrepublik China. Differenzierte Einschätzungen der chinesischen Infrastrukturinvestitionen und deren Wirksamkeit kommen dabei oft zu kurz: So lagen die Baukosten des Flughafens in Beijing mit umgerechnet 57 Milliarden Euro beispielsweise deutlich höher als die des BER mit 7 Milliarden Euro – und das, obwohl die Fläche des Beijinger Flughafens nur dreimal so groß ist wie der BER (Deutsche Welle 2019). Solche Vergleiche sind jedoch immer auch problematisch, da sie Aspekte wie Personalkosten, Ausstattung oder unterschiedliche rechtliche Vorgaben nicht berücksichtigen.
Ausbau der Infrastrukturinvestitionen seit den 1980er-Jahren Die Investitionen in die chinesische Infrastruktur sind seit dem Beginn der Reform- und Öffnungspolitik in den 1980er-Jahren enorm angestiegen. Bedeutsam waren auch die asiatische Finanzkrise 1998 und die Weltfinanzkrise 2008, nach denen die chinesische Regierung stark in Infrastruktur investierte, um die chinesische Wirtschaft anzukurbeln. So wurde beispielsweise das chinesische Autobahnnetz seit 1997 (weniger als 5.000 Kilometer Länge) enorm ausgebaut (2014: 112.000 Kilometer). Auch die Häfen entlang der chinesischen Küste nahmen zu und wurden größer: Während zu Beginn der 2000er-Jahre noch die Hälfte der chinesischen Exporte über Hong Kong abgewickelt wurde, sind neben Hong Kong nun heute auch fünf weitere chinesische Häfen unter den zehn weltweit größten Häfen nach Containerumschlag zu finden. Ähnlich rasante Entwicklungen sind auch – nicht nur in absoluten, sondern auch in relativen Zahlen – in Bereichen wie Stromerzeugung (in den 2000er-Jahren gingen in China jährlich so viele Stromkraftwerke neu ans Netz wie die Gesamtanzahl aller Stromwerke in Großbritannien) und Telefon- und Internetnetzwerke vorzufinden (Kroeber 2016: 83-84).
Hochgeschwindigkeitsschiennetz Auch die regionalen und überregionalen Transportnetzwerke in der Volksrepublik China sind enorm gewachsen: So sind die zwei weltgrößten U-Bahnnetze in Shanghai und Beijing zu finden und in nur zehn Jahren wurden seit 2008 in China doppelt so viel Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken gebaut wie im Rest der Welt zusammengenommen existieren (Lawrence/Bullock/Liu 2019: 7-19). Bis 2035 soll die Länge der chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken außerdem von den bestehenden 35.000 Kilometern nochmals mehr als verdoppelt werden, sodass alle chinesischen Städte mit mehr als 500.000 Einwohner*innen an das Hochgeschwindigkeitsnetz angeschlossen sind (Reuters 2020). Zwischen 2005 und 2015 wurden 2,5 Trillionen Renminbi 人民币 (umgerechnet mehr als 320 Milliarden Euro) in den Ausbau des chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitsnetzes investiert. Diese Kosten wurden nicht nur von der Zentralregierung, sondern auch von den Lokalregierungen getragen (Lawrence/Bullock/Liu 2019: 65). Durch die Standardisierung und Massenproduktion wichtiger Bestandteile der Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken liegen die Baukosten (durchschnittlich zirka 20 Mio. pro Kilometer) ungefähr 30 Prozent niedriger als für Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken in Europa. Es sind also nicht vor allem die billigeren Personalkosten in China, sondern die effizientere Planung und Baufortschritt, der die Kosten im Vergleich zu Europa senkt. Finanzielle Anreize sorgen außerdem dafür, dass die Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken im Vergleich wesentlich pünktlicher fertiggestellt werden (Lawrence/Bullock/Liu 2019: 39-49). Die chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitszüge haben durchschnittlich eine hohe Pünktlichkeit von 95 Prozent, was auch darauf zurückzuführen ist, dass sie meistens (anders als beispielsweise die ICEs in Deutschland, aber ähnlich wie in Japan) auf einem eigenen Schienennetz ohne langsamere Züge fahren. Ein Nachteil ist, dass die Bahnhöfe daher zumeist außerhalb der Stadtzentren liegen. Da die Bahnhöfe jedoch durch den öffentlichen Nahverkehr gut an die Stadtzentren angebunden sind, sind die Hochgeschwindigkeitszüge in China – insbesondere für Entfernungen zwischen drei und vier Stunden Reisezeit (150-800 km) – durchaus beliebt (Lawrence/Bullock/Liu 2019: 81-83; Yang u.a. 2018: 237).
Kosten und Nutzen des Hochgeschwindigkeitsschienennetzes In Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft ist beispielsweise umstritten, wie effektiv und wirtschaftsfördernd die chinesischen Infrastrukturprojekte tatsächlich sind. In einer Studie von 2016 argumentierten Wirtschaftswissenschaftler*innen der Universität Oxford, dass Effektivität und Wirtschaftsförderung chinesischer Infrastrukturprojekte nicht durchweg zutreffend seien (Ansar u.a. 2016). Mehr als die Hälfte der Infrastrukturinvestitionen in China seit 1986 habe mehr gekostet als Nutzen gebracht. Außerdem seien auch chinesische Infrastrukturprojekte nicht immer kosteneffizienter als die im Rest der Welt. Knapp ein Drittel der von den Wissenschaftler*innen untersuchten Projekte wurden teurer als geplant.
Technologiepolitik und Legitimität Die Technologien der ersten chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitszüge beruhten auf Zugmodellen aus Deutschland (Siemens) und Japan. Doch bereits ganz zu Beginn des Ausbaus des Hochgeschwindigkeitsnetzes 2008 entschied die chinesische Regierung, dass die Entwicklung von Hochgeschwindigkeitszügen langfristig in China selbst stattfinden sollte. So wurde ein Programm aufgesetzt, bei dem chinesische Firmen und Universitäten selbst einen chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitszug herstellen sollten (Lawrence/Bullock/Liu 2019: 10). 2016 wurden erstmals Züge der Baureihe Fuxing 复兴 in den Dienst genommen, die nicht mehr von deutsch-chinesischen oder japanisch-chinesischen Joint Ventures, sondern eigenständig in China entwickelt und produziert wurden. Diese Züge, die nicht einfach Kopien des deutschen ICEs oder des japanischen Shinkansen sind, versucht der chinesische Hersteller nun – im Rahmen der Neuen-Seidenstraßen-Initiative – auch ins Ausland zu exportieren (Lee 2019). Denn China investiert nicht nur im Inland, sondern auch im Ausland in den Ausbau des Schienennetzes (China Power Team 2020).
Jonas Schmid, 22.02.2021, überarbeitet am 02.08.2022 Verwendete Literatur
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Modul Chinabilder Infrastruktur
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Ansar, Atif, Bent Flyvbjerg, Alexander Budzier und Daniel Lunn. 2016. Does infrastructure investment lead to economic growth or economic fragility? Evidence from China. Oxford review of economic policy 32, Nr. 3: 360–390. Zitieren
In dieser Studie untersuchten Wirtschaftswissenschaftler*innen der Universität Oxford 2016, ob chinesische Infrastrukturinvestitionen effektiv und wirtschaftsfördernd sind. Laut ihren Forschungen habe mehr als die Hälfte der Infrastrukturinvestitionen in China seit 1986 mehr gekostet als wirtschaftlichen Nutzen gebracht. Knapp ein Drittel der von den Wissenschaftler*innen untersuchten chinesischen Infrastrukturprojekte wurden teurer als geplant. China Power Team. 2020. How Are Foreign Rail Construction Projects Advancing China’s Interests? ChinaPower Project. 12. November. http://chinapower.csis.org/rail-construction/ (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Der Artikel gibt einen Überblick über Investitionen in Zugstrecken im Ausland durch die Volksrepublik China. China Power ist eine Webseite des amerikanischen Thinktanks Center for Strategic and International Studies, einem parteiunabhängigen und gemeinnützigen US-amerikanischen Thinktank mit einem Fokus auf die amerikanische Außenpolitik. Deutsche Welle. 2019. „Berlin kann davon lernen“: Mega-Flughafen in Peking eröffnet | DW | 25.09.2019. Deutsche Welle. 25. September. https://www.dw.com/de/berlin-kann-davon-lernen-mega-flughafen-in-peking-er%C3%B6ffnet/a-50572988 (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Kurzer Bericht über die Eröffnung des neuen Flughafens in Beijing 2019 und den Vergleich mit dem Hauptstadtflughafen in Berlin. Domke Seidel, Christian. 2023. Bahnanbieter CRRC: Vom Schüler zum Meister. China.Table. 11. Juni. https://table.media/china/analyse/bahnanbieter-crrc-vom-schueler-zum-meister/ (zugegriffen: 26. Juni 2023). Zitieren
Fickling. 2020. China Doesn’t Need 125,000 Miles of Track. Bloomberg.com, 17. August. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-08-17/china-doesn-t-need-another-125-000-miles-of-high-speed-rail (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Kommentar eines Journalisten des US-amerikanischen Medienunternehmens Bloomberg, der argumentiert, dass ein weitere Ausbau des chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitsnetzes nicht sinnvoll sei. Köll, Elisabeth. 2019. Railroads and the Transformation of China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Zitieren
Diese wissenschaftliche Monografie einer Professorin für chinesische Wirtschaftsgeschichte untersucht die Geschichte der Eisenbahnen in China vom späten 19. Jahrhundert bis in die 1980er-Jahre und wie diese Chinas wirtschaftliche, gesellschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklung beeinflusste und von dieser beeinflusst wurde. Kroeber, Arthur R. 2016. China’s economy: what everyone needs to know. What everyone needs to know®. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Zitieren
Kroebers Buch gibt einen gundlegenden Überblick über die chinesische Wirtschaft und richtet sich auch an interessierte Laien. Behandelte Themen sind die ländliche Wirtschaft, Industrie und Exportwirtschaft, Konsumwirtschaft, Urbanisierung und Infrastruktur, Unternehmen, das Banken- und Finanzsystem, die Beziehungen zwischen der Zentralregierung und den Lokalregierungen, Energie und Umwelt, den Arbeitsmarkt und demographische Faktoren sowie Ungleichheit und Korruption. Arthur Kroeber ist ein renommierter Experte im Bereich der chinesischen Wirtschaft – lange Jahre war er Wirtschaftsjournalist in China und ist derzeit Herausgeber einer renommierten wissenschaftlichen Zeitschrift zur chinesischen Wirtschaft. Lawrence, Martha, Richard Bullock und Ziming Liu. 2019. China’s High-Speed Rail Development. World Bank Publications. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31801. Zitieren
Diese von der Weltbank herausgegebene, kostenlos zugängliche Studie von 2018 gibt einen Überblick über Errichtung, Kosten und Nutzen der chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitszugstrecken. Die Studie hebt vor allem die positiven Seiten hervor (z.B. Effizienz und im internationalen Vergleich geringe Kosten bei der Errichtung) und sieht das chinesische Modell des Ausbaus von Hochgeschwindigskeitsstrecken als Vorbild auch für andere Entwicklungsländer. 2018 erschienen ist dies jedoch weiterhin die umfassendste Studie mit den meisten Daten zu Chinas Hochgeschwindigkeitszugnetz. Lee, Felix. 2019. Hochgeschwindigkeitszug: 1.300 Kilometer in viereinhalb Stunden. Die Zeit, 2. Oktober, Abschn. Wirtschaft. https://www.zeit.de/wirtschaft/2019-09/hochgeschwindigkeitszug-china-fuxing-crrc-zugverkehr (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Zeitungsartikel des China-Korrespondenten Felix Lee zur Entwicklung der Hochgeschwindigkeitszüge in der Volksrepublik China, der auch knapp auf die Rolle deutscher Technologie und den Technologietransfer eingeht. Li, Kunwu. 2016. Die Eisenbahn über den Wolken. Übers. von Christoph Schuler. 1. Auflage. Zürich: Edition Moderne. Zitieren
Graphic Novel eines chinesischen Künstlers zur Geschichte der unter französischer Kolonialherrschaft gebauten Eisenbahn in der Provinz Yunnan im Südwesten Chinas. MacroPolo. 2021. Boon or Boondoggle? The Cost and Benefit of China’s Bullet Trains. MacroPolo. https://macropolo.org/digital-projects/high-speed-rail/ (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Macro Polo ist ein US-amerikanischer Thinktank, der zu Chinas Wirtschaft, Technologie und Politik forscht (weitere Informationen finden Sie in unserer Linkliste). In dieser interaktiv aufbereitenden Studie argumentieren die Autor*innen, dass der Ausbau der Hochgeschwindigkeitszugstrecken in China der chinesischen Wirtschaft unterm Strich mehr Nutzen als Kosten bringt. Reuters. 2020. China plans to expand railway network to 200,000 km before 2035. Reuters, 13. August. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-economy-infrastructure-railways-idUSKCN2590M4 (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Englische Agenturmeldung zur Ankündigung der chinesischen Regierung die chinesischen Eisenbahnstrecken, darunter auch die Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken, bis 2035 weiter enorm auszubauen. The Economist. 2021. China will soon open a new stretch of rail across Tibet. The Economist, 6. Mai. https://www.economist.com/china/2021/06/03/china-will-soon-open-a-new-stretch-of-rail-across-tibet (zugegriffen: 2. August 2022). Zitieren
Wei, Tie. 2018. Amazing China. Documentary. China Central Television (CCTV). Zitieren
Vom staatlichen chinesischen Fernsehen produzierte Dokumentation, die den wirtschaftlich und technologischen Fortschritt Chinas sehr positiv als Leistung der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas darstellt. Trailer unter: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PungN5s0Zgs Wen, Kejian. 2019. Let’s Talk About China’s GDP. EchoWall. 9. März. https://www.echo-wall.eu/knowledge-gaps/lets-talk-about-chinas-gdp (zugegriffen: 20. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Forschungsbasierter Blogartikel, der sich kritisch mit in Europa gängigen Ideen über Chinas Bruttoinlandsprodukt auseinandersetzt und auch auf die Probleme der chinesischen Wirtschaft eingeht. Weitere Informationen zum Forschungsblog Echo Wall sind in unserer Linkliste zu finden. Yang, Haoran, Frédéric Dobruszkes, Jiaoe Wang, Martin Dijst und Patrick Witte. 2018. Comparing China’s urban systems in high-speed railway and airline networks. Journal of Transport Geography 68 (1. April): 233–244. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.03.015, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692317305896 (zugegriffen: 24. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Wissenschaftlicher Aufsatz, der Chinas Hochgeschwindigkeitszugnetz und Flugverkehr miteinander vergleicht. Ausgehend von Daten aus dem Jahr 2013 zeigen die Autor*innen, dass die Hochgeschwindigkeitslinien vor allem im dichtbesiedelten und wirtschaftlich starken Osten Chinas beliebt sind. Zhao, Jian. 2019a. What’s Not Great About China’s High-Speed Rail? The Debt. Caixin. https://www.caixinglobal.com/2019-01-29/zhao-jian-whats-not-great-about-chinas-high-speed-rail-the-debt-101375797.html (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Im chinesischen Wirtschaftsmagazin Caixin erschienener Artikel des chinesischen Wissenschaftlers Zhao Jian, Direktor des Zentrums für Urbanisierungsforschung an der Beijinger Universität für Transport. Zhao sieht den weiteren Ausbau von Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken durch Schulden als wirtschaftlich unrentabel und daher kritisch. 赵坚. 2019. 高铁负债这事 应该怎么看. Sina Finance. 9. Mai. https://finance.sina.com.cn/china/gncj/2019-05-09/doc-ihvhiqax7679666.shtml (zugegriffen: 22. Februar 2021). Zitieren
Chinesischer Artikel des Wissenschaftlers Zhao Jian, Direktor des Zentrums für Urbanisierungsforschung an der Beijinger Universität für Transport. Zhao sieht den weiteren Ausbau von Hochgeschwindigkeitsstrecken durch Schulden als wirtschaftlich unrentabel und daher kritisch. |