Debatten über eine Begrenzung des chinesischen Bevölkerungswachstums lassen sich bis in die 1930er-Jahre zurückverfolgen, als chinesische Soziologen und Politiker beeinflusst von europäischen Denkern wie Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834) Chinas große Bevölkerung erstmals als Hindernis für die zukünftige Entwicklung Chinas hin zu einem „modernen“ Staat sahen. [Scharping 2003: 30] Der erste Zensus in der Volksrepublik China 1953 rief bei Mao Zedong und der Parteiführung Bedenken angesichts der hohen Geburtenraten hervor: Konnten die vielen Kinder überhaupt alle in Schulen unterrichtet und ihre Mütter gesundheitlich versorgt werden? Und: Standen zukünftig überhaupt genügend Arbeitsplätze und Nahrungsmittel (wegen des wenigen für Landwirtschaft nutzbaren Landes) zur Verfügung? Ende der 1950er-Jahre rief Mao daher zu Maßnahmen der Geburtenkontrolle auf, die dann jedoch aufgrund der Massenkampagnen unter anderem des Großen Sprungs und der Kulturrevolution bis zum Beginn der 1970er-Jahre nur teilweise (z.B. größere Verbreitung von Verhütungsmitteln und kostenlose Abtreibungen) umgesetzt wurden. [Whyte/Feng/Cai 2015: 146-149; Scharping 2003: 31-32, 43-49]
Als nach dem Ende der ersten heißen Phase der Kulturrevolution 1969 wieder die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung stärker in den Mittelpunkt der chinesischen Politik rückte, wurden in den chinesischen Provinzen sogenannte „Leitungsgruppen Familienplanung“ (jihua shengyu lingdao xiaozu 计划生育领导小组) gegründet, die Vorgaben zur Beschränkung der Bevölkerungszahl und Geburtenraten festlegten. [Chen/Huang 2020] 1973 wurde zur Senkung der Geburtenrate eine landesweite Kampagne unter dem Slogan „spätere [Geburten], seltenere [Schwangerschaften], weniger [Kinder]“ (wan, xi, shao 晚稀少) ausgerufen: Erlaubt waren zwei Kinder für Paare in den Städten (auf dem Land: drei). Schwangerschaften waren insgesamt erst ab einem Alter von 25 Jahren (auf dem Land: 23) erlaubt und zwischen den zwei Schwangerschaften musste vier Jahre gewartet werden. Die Umsetzung der Vorgaben wurde vor Ort durch Parteimitglieder überwacht, die oftmals detaillierte Aufzeichnungen über den Verbrauch von Verhütungsmitteln und Menstruationszyklen einzelner Individuen erstellten (sowie öffentlich aufhängten) und zu Abtreibungen drängten bzw. zwangen. Außerdem gab es Geldstrafen oder Arbeitsplatzverlust bei überzähligen Schwangerschaften. [Whyte/Feng/Cai 2015: 149- 152; Scharping 2003: 49-52; Greenhalgh 2008: 65-67] Nach dem Tod Mao Zedongs Ende der 1970er-Jahre verschärfte sich innerhalb der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas die Debatte über die Kontrolle des Bevölkerungswachstums weiter. Verschiedene Gruppen von Wissenschaftlern versuchten dabei, den Entscheidungsfindungsprozess in Beijing zu beeinflussen. Schlussendlich setzte sich eine Gruppe von ehemaligen Raketenwissenschaftlern durch, die sich, beeinflusst von westlichen Theorien der Bevölkerungsproblematik in Entwicklungsländern, der Bevölkerungswissenschaft zugewandt hatten und eine harte Begrenzung der Geburtenrate auf ein Kind pro Frau forderten. Kritische Stimmen wie die von Liang Zhongtang 梁中堂 (1947-), die vor den demographischen Risiken einer Politik der Geburtenbeschränkung (u.a. Überalterung) gewarnt hatten, unterlagen. [Greenhalgh 2008: 81-307; Scharping 2003: 50-58] Doch trotz der Umsetzung der Ein-Kind-Politik ab 1979 verstummten die kritischen Stimmen nie ganz und auch innerhalb der Partei kam es wiederholt (1986-1989, 1998, seit 2000) zu Diskussionen über den Sinn der Ein-Kind-Politik. [Scharping 2003: 58-73; Scharping 2019: 328-337]
Die Ein-Kind-Politik sollte durch ein System von Sanktionen und Anreizen umgesetzt werden. Zu den Anreizen zählten beispielsweise eine Ein-Kind-Prämie, längerer und bezahlter Schwangerschaftsurlaub und auf dem Land auch zusätzliches Ackerland und eine bessere Altersversorgung. Da jedoch nicht genügend Geld für eine komplette Umsetzung dieser Anreize zur Verfügung stand, wurde vor allem auf Sanktionen wie Geldstrafen oder Gehaltsabzüge zurückgegriffen. [Scharping 2014: 76-77; Scharping 2003: 125-149] Bei unerlaubten Schwangerschaften wurden Frauen durch diese Sanktionen zur Abtreibung gedrängt oder auch zur Sterilisierung (durch eine Operation wird sichergestellt, dass Fortpflanzung nicht weiter möglich ist) gezwungen. [Scharping 2003: 105-125] Zwangsmaßnahmen wie Abtreibungen und Sterilisierungen waren besonders in den 1980er- und 1990er-Jahren weit verbreitet: Der Höhepunkt von Sterilisierungen (Unfrachtbarmachung) lag mit mehr als 20 Millionen im Jahr 1983 zu Beginn der Ein-Kind-Politik. Die Höhe der Sterilisierung nahm seit dem Ende der 1990er-Jahre deutlich ab und lag dann im einstelligen Millionenbereich pro Jahr. [Scharping 2003: 105-125; Whyte/Feng/Cai 2015: 151] Obgleich der Zwangscharakter der Ein-Kind-Politik immer erhalten blieb, kamen nach 1998 weichere Ansätze wie verbesserte Beratungsleistungen und medizinische Betreuung für Frauen hinzu. [Scharping 2014: 74-75] Außerdem sank in urbanen Gegenden die Bereitschaft, mehr als ein Kind zu bekommen, stark. [Mittler 2013: 202-203]
Doch die Ein-Kind-Politik blieb umstritten: Seit der Jahrtausendwende nahmen die Kritik aus der chinesischen Gesellschaft und auch die Diskussionen innerhalb der Partei weiter zu. Die Stimmung unter Expert*innen schlug dabei im Vergleich mit den 1980er-Jahren ins Gegenteil um: Gegner der Ein-Kind-Politik betonten beispielsweise, dass die unter geringem Konsum und in Zukunft mangelnden Arbeitskräften leidende chinesische Wirtschaft durch eine höhere Bevölkerungsanzahl angekurbelt werden könnte und zeigten sich optimistisch, dass die Probleme einer großen Bevölkerung durch politische und technologische Mittel gelöst werden könnten. Ein bekanntes Beispiel ist der in Amerika lebende chinesische Gynäkologe Yi Fuxian 易富贤: Dessen bekanntes Buch chinesisches Buch „Großes Land, leeres Nest“ (daguo kongchao 大国空巢), in dem er die Folgen der Bevölkerungspolitik anprangert, konnte noch 2007 nur in Hong Kong erscheinen, wurde 2013 dann aber von einem staatlichen Verlag in Beijing herausgegeben. [Tatlow 2015] Auch dass weiterhin Frauen zu Abtreibungen gezwungen wurden, löste in der chinesischen Gesellschaft Unmut aus: Beispielhaft ist die erzwungene Abtreibung des sieben Monate alten Kindes von Feng Jianmei 冯建梅, deren Familie nicht die Geldstrafe für ein zweites Kind bezahlen konnte. Im Internet geteilte Bilder von ihr und ihrem toten Kind riefen einen Sturm der Entrüstung in China hervor, bei dem selbst staatliche Medien wie die Global Times ein Ende der Zwangsmaßnahmen forderten. [Global Times 2012] Befürworter der Ein-Kind-Politik hingegen argumentierten nach 2000 verstärkt mit dem Argument, dass hohe Geburtenraten negativen Einfluss auf die Umwelt und Ressourcen Chinas haben. 2015 wurde die Ein-Kind-Politik beendet, pro Ehepaar sind nun zwei Kinder erlaubt. [Scharping 2019: 341-345]
Ein Grund für den Niedergang der Ein-Kind-Politik ist die Erkenntnis, dass China die Armut – in den 1980er-Jahren ein wesentliches Argument für die Ein-Kind-Politik – in weiten Teilen hinter sich gelassen hat. Das Ende der Ein-Kind-Politik ist jedoch auch auf ihre schwerwiegenden gesellschaftlichen Folgen zurückzuführen, die seit den 2000er-Jahren auch von der chinesischen Politik zunehmend als Problem gesehen wurden – allen voran die drohende Überalterung. [Scharping 2019: 328] Die im Video oben erwähnte Schätzung der Vereinten Nationen geht davon aus, dass der Anteil der über 65-jährigen an der chinesischen Gesamtbevölkerung im Jahr 2060 mit mehr als 30% sogar die EU und die USA übertreffen wird. Für die Volksrepublik China ist dies vor allem problematisch, da es bis jetzt kein lückenloses Sozialversicherungssystem gibt. Da auch ein staatliches System der Altenpflege noch in den Kinderschuhen steckt, müssen die Familien selbst einspringen: Ein Einzelkind ist dabei für die Unterstützung von bis zu sechs Personen (zwei Eltern und vier Großeltern) verantwortlich. [Fong 2004: 127-153] Außerdem hat die Ein-Kind-Politik in Kombination mit der seit langem und bis heute vor allem auf dem Land fortbestehenden Vorliebe für Söhne in China dazu geführt, dass das Geschlechterverhältnis zwischen Frauen und Männern extrem ungleich ist: 2019 kamen im Durchschnitt auf 100 Frauengeburten 114 Männergeburten (in Deutschland sind es 105 männliche Kinder auf 100 weibliche Kinder). [Statista 2020a; Statista 2020b] Das heißt, dass es in China zurzeit 30 Millionen mehr Männer als Frauen gibt. Für diese oftmals auf dem Land lebenden Männer ist es sehr schwierig, wenn nicht gar unmöglich, zu heiraten und eine Familie zu gründen – sie werden daher auch als „leere Stöcke“ (guanggun 光棍) bezeichnet. Dieser Überschuss von Männern wird historisch oft mit sozialer Instabilität und Konflikten in Verbindung gebracht – eine Gefahr, der sich auch die KPCh bewusst ist. [Crow 2010] Vorschläge von chinesischen Wissenschaftlern, diesen Männerüberschuss auszugleichen, indem beispielsweise Frauen mehrere Männer heiraten können oder Single-Männer aus ländlichen Regionen gefördert werden Single-Frauen in den Städten zu heiraten, führen im chinesischen Internet immer wieder zu kontorversen Diskussionen. [Feng 2020, Feng 2021]
Der Trend zu Einzelkindfamilien hat aus der Perspektive der Mädchen jedoch auch positive Seiten: Diese stehen nicht mehr in Konkurrenz zu Brüdern, sondern in ihre Bildung und Zukunft wird genau so viel investiert wie in die eines männlichen Nachfahren. [Fong 2004; Jiang 2020; Mittler 2013: 202-203]
Blickt man zurück auf den Effekt und die Folgen der staatlichen Familienplanung, gibt es sowohl in der Volksrepublik China als auch im Ausland mehrere Missverständnisse über die Ein-Kind-Politik.
1) Laut der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas war die Ein-Kind-Politik ein Erfolg, durch den 400 Mio. Geburten verhindert werden konnten. Nur so konnten aus ihrer Sicht das chinesische Wirtschaftswachstum und die erfolgreiche Bekämpfung der Armut erreicht werden. [Xinhua 2006] Außerdem habe die chinesische Geburtenpolitik wesentlich dazu beigetragen, den Klimawandel abzumildern. [Xinhhua 2009] Auch im Ausland wird vor allem die Ein-Kind-Politik verantwortlich für den Rückgang der Geburtenraten in China gemacht. Es war jedoch nicht zuallererst die Ein-Kind-Politik, die zu einem enormen Rückgang der Geburtenrate in der Volksrepublik China geführt hat: Lag die nationale Geburtenrate 1970 noch bei knapp 6, war sie bis zur Einführung der Ein-Kind-Politik 1979 bereits auf 2,7 Kinder pro Frau zurückgegangen. 70% des Rückgangs der Geburtenrate sind also nicht auf die Ein-Kind-Politik, sondern auf deren Vorläuferkampagne zur Geburtenkontrolle in den 1970er-Jahren zurückzuführen. [Whyte/Feng/Cai 2015: 152-153] Auch die offizielle Verlautbarung der chinesischen Regierung, die Ein-Kind-Politik habe 400 Mio. Geburten verhindert, ist nicht haltbar: Denn die Erfahrung aus anderen Ländern hat gezeigt, dass wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und eine Erhöhung des Lebensstandards automatisch zu einem Rückgang der Geburtenrate führen – Chinas Geburtenrate wäre also wahrscheinlich auch ohne Ein-Kind-Politik zurückgegangen. [Whyte/Feng/Cai 2015: 155-159; Scharping 2014: 89] Dies zeigt sich auch daran, dass trotz der seit 2015 eingeführten Zwei-Kind-Politik wenige Chines*innen (von denen die Mehrheit mittlerweile in Städten und nicht mehr auf dem Land lebt) Interesse daran haben, zwei Kinder zu haben. [Scharping 2019: 336] Dieser Trend war bereits in den 2000er-Jahren im urbanen China anzutreffen. Ein junger Mann aus Shanghai beschrieb 2005 seine Gedanken zur Ein-Kind-Politik wie folgt: „[F]ür mich war das schon immer so. Die Leute respektieren die Politik und niemand braucht sie in Frage zu stellen, weil wir sowieso nicht viele Kinder wollen. Ein Kind ist gut für Paare. Ein Einzelkind ist nicht schwer zu erziehen und macht den Eltern nicht allzu viel Mühe. Ich möchte nicht mehr als eins. Ich kenne auch eine ganze Menge Leute, die gar keine Kinder wollen.“ [Nie/Wyman 2005: 325] Insbesondere die hohen Kosten für die Ausbildung eines Kindes und die Schwierigkeiten für Frauen bei der Rückkehr in ihren Job nach zwei Geburten, machen die Zwei-Kind-Familie in China unattraktiv. [Zhou 2018]
Auch die Bezeichnung „Ein-Kind-Politik“ selbst ist ungenau. Sie stützt sich auf einen bekannten chinesischen Propagandaslogan der 1980er-Jahre „Nur ein [Kind] gebären ist gut“ (zhi sheng yi ge hao 只生一个好). Von politischer Seite wird in der VR China die neutralere Bezeichnung Geburtenplanungspolitik oder Familienplanungspolitik (jihua shengyu zhengce 计划生育政策) verwendet. [Mittler 2013: 199] Der Anspruch des Propagandaslogans, die Geburtenrate auf ein Kind pro Familie zu senken, konnte nicht erreicht werden. Von den 1980er-Jahren bis in die 2000er-Jahre hinein lag die durchschnittliche chinesische Geburtenrate immer bei zirka zwei Kindern pro Frau. [Scharping 2003: 157; Mittler 2013: 199-202] Dies ist auch darauf zurückzuführen, dass es keine einheitliche Ein-Kind-Politik gab, die landesweit durchgesetzt wurde. Zwischen der Umsetzung der Politik auf dem Land und in den Städten zeigten sich große Unterschiede: In den Städten lag die Geburtenrate niedriger als auf dem Land, wo mehr Geburten mehr der benötigten Arbeitskraft bedeuteten. Viele Provinzregierungen erlaubten daher der Landbevölkerung eine zweite Geburt, manchmal auch dritte Geburt, wenn das erste Kind ein Mädchen war – 2010 lebte in solchen Gebieten mehr als die Hälfte der chinesischen Bevölkerung. Und auch die nationalen Minderheiten wurden seit der Mitte der 1980er-Jahre der staatlichen Familienplanung unterstellt, ihnen wurden jedoch mehr Kinder als den Han-Chinesen gestattet. [Scharping 2014: 73-75]
Eine Fixierung auf die Ein-Kind-Politik verdeckt ferner, dass auch nach ihrem Ende 2015 die chinesische Regierung keineswegs ihren Anspruch auf eine staatlich gelenkte Familienplanung aufgegeben hat: Auch in Zukunft wird die Zentralregierung und Parteiführung in Beijing Vorgaben der Familienplanung machen, die von den lokalen Parteikadern verpflichtend umzusetzen sind. [Alpermann/Zhan 2018: 15]
(Jonas Schmid 24.02.2021)
Verwendete Literatur
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Modul Chinabilder Bevölkerungpolitik
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https://www.china-schul-akademie.de/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
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Alpermann, Björn und Shaohua Zhan. 2019. Population Planning after the One-Child Policy: Shifting Modes of Political Steering in China.
The Journal of contemporary China 28, Nr. 117: 348–366.
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Argumentiert, dass die chinesische Zentralregierung bzw. Parteizentrale auch nach dem Ende der Ein-Kind-Politik 2015 weiterhin versucht, durch Vorgaben aus Beijing die Entwicklung der Bevölkerung zu lenken, nun vor allem aber die Qualität der Bevölkerung erhöhen will.
Ash, Alec. 2016.
Die Einzelkinder : wovon Chinas neue Generation träumt / Alec Ash ; aus dem Englischen von Thorsten Schmidt. München: Hanser Berlin.
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Bloomberg. 2021. China Moves to Three-Child Policy to Boost Falling Birthrate.
Bloomberg.com, 31. Mai.
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-31/china-to-allow-couples-to-have-three-children-to-boost-births (zugegriffen: 14. November 2021).
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Chen, Yi und Yingfei Huang. 2020. The power of the government: China’s Family Planning Leading Group and the fertility decline of the 1970s.
Demographic research 42: 985–1038.
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Untersucht wie stark die nach 1969 gegründeten sogenannten „Leitungsgruppen Familienplanung“ (jihua shengyu lingdao xiaozu 计划生育领导小组) mit ihren Vorgaben zur Beschränkung der Geburtenraten vor der Einführung der Ein-Kind-Politik beitrugen.
Crow, Britt L. 2010. Bare-sticks and rebellion: The drivers and implications of China’s reemerging sex imbalance.
Technology in society 32, Nr. 2: 72–80.
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In diesem wissenschaftlichen Artikel argumentiert die Autorin, dass das Phänomen der „leeren Stöcke“ (Junggesellen) in China historisch gesehen ein großes Potential für Aufstände bot.
Endriss, Jörg und Sonja Maaß. 2017.
Chinakinder: Moderne Rebellen in einer alten Welt. Conbook Medien GmbH.
https://www.conbook-verlag.de/buecher/chinakinder/.
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Jörg Endriss (Nachrichtenredakteur beim NDR) und Sonja Maaß (Sinologin, die für den Spiegel arbeitet) präsentieren mit ihrem Buch „CHINAKINDER – Moderne Rebellen in einer alten Welt“ ein buntes Panorama von Jugendkultur auf dem Festland, in Taiwan und Hongkong. Über Zufallsbegegnungen wie auch durch Recherche wählten die beiden Autor*innen ein breites Spektrum an 30 Interviewpartner aus und zeigen mit den Portraits, wie groß der Spielraum für sehr individuelle Lebenswege im chinesischen Kulturraum ist, obwohl das politische System auf dem Festland und die kulturelle Spezifika weiterhin den Rahmen vorgeben. Um sich selbst zu schützen, bestehen einige der Interviewten auf Anonymität, während andere trotz Namensnennung sehr deutlich auf politische und gesellschaftliche Missstände hinweisen. Zu Wort kommen z.B. der Gründer einer Online-Gedichtplattform, zwei Homosexuelle aus Shanghai, die Gründerin einer Ökofarm und eine alleinerziehende Mutter. Ein Vor- und ein Nachwort, individuelle Einleitungen vor jedem Portrait sowie ein Glossar helfen dem Leser, sich in die diskutierten Themen einzufinden. Kapitel zum Reinlesen: https://www.conbook-verlag.de/buecher/chinakinder/
Feng, Jiayun. 2021. Could urban single women be the solution to China’s surplus of rural bachelors?
SupChina. 15. Februar.
https://supchina.com/2021/02/15/could-urban-single-women-be-the-solution-to-chinas-surplus-of-rural-bachelors/ (zugegriffen: 24. Februar 2021).
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Bericht der US-amerikanischen Webseite SupChina über die Idee eines chinesischen Wissenschaftlers, um das Problem des Junggesellenüberschuss in der Volksrepublik China zu lösen: Frauen aus den Städten sollen Junggesellen aus den ländlichen Regionen heiraten. Der Bericht geht auch auf die lautstarke Kritik im chinesischen Internet (insbesondere von Frauen) ein.
Feng, Jiayun. 2020. Should Chinese women have multiple husbands?
SupChina. 3. Juni.
https://supchina.com/2020/06/03/should-chinese-women-have-multiple-husbands/ (zugegriffen: 24. Februar 2021).
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Bericht der US-amerikanischen Webseite SupChina über die Idee eines Wirtschaftswissenschaftlers aus Malaysia, um das Problem des Junggesellenüberschuss in der Volksrepublik China zu lösen: Frauen sollen legal mehrere Männer heiraten können. Der Bericht geht auch auf die lautstarke Kritik im chinesischen Internet ein.
Fong, Vanessa L. 2004.
Only hope: coming of age under China’s one-child policy. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press.
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Anthropologische Untersuchung, welche Folgen die Ein-Kind-Politik auf chinesische Heranwachsende hat. Die Autorin hat während ihrer Arbeit als Englischlehrerin in der nordostchinesischen Stadt Dalian zwischen 1999 und 2002 mehrere chinesische Schulkinder in Unterricht und Alltag begleitet und befragt. In ihren Erzählungen und Analysen wird allen voran der Leistungsdruck und die Erwartungen der Familie deutlich, da die Jugendlichen als Einzelkinder für ihre Eltern und bis zu vier Großeltern Sorge tragen müssen.
Fong, Mei. 2016.
One Child: The Story of China’s Most Radical Experiment. Boston/Mass: Mariner Books.
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Global Times. 2012. Forced late-term abortions must not be tolerated - Global Times.
Global Times. 13. Juni.
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/714722.shtml (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Artikel der Global Times, einer staatlichen chinesischen Tageszeitung unter der direkten Kontrolle der Kommunistischen Partei, die in Folge des Skandals um die erzwungene Abtreibung des Kindes von Feng Jianmei 2012 zu einem Ende von erzwungenen Abtreibungen in späten Stadien der Schwangerschaft forderte.
Greenhalgh, Susan. 2008.
Just one child: science and policy in Deng’s China. Stanford, Calif. [u.a.]: Univ. of California Pr.
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Diese Studie legt den Fokus vor allem auf den Entstehungsprozess der Ein-Kind-Politik in den Jahren 1979-1980 und zeigt, wie verschiedene Gruppen chinesischer Wissenschaftler versuchten bei der Parteiführung in Beijing ihre Sichtweise umzusetzen.
Jiang, Xuan. 2020. Family Planning and Women’s Educational Attainment: Evidence from the One-Child Policy.
Contemporary economic policy 38, Nr. 3: 530–545.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/coep.12462. Zitieren
Dieser wissenschaftliche Aufsatz argumentiert, dass der Rückgang der Geburtenraten (der hier allein auf die Ein-Kind-Politik zurückgeführt wird) zu einer Besserstellung von Frauen im Bereich der Bildung führte: Dadurch dass sie keine oder wenige Geschwister hatten, konnten deutlich mehr der zwischen 1960 und 1980 geborenen Frauen an den Schulen ausgebildet werden. Der Aufsatz geht allerdings nicht auf weitere mögliche Faktoren, die zu diesem Ergebnis geführt haben könnten, ein.
Krings, Marion F., Jeroen D. H. van Wijngaarden, Shasha
Yuan und Robbert Huijsman. 2022. China’s Elder Care Policies 1994–2020: A Narrative Document Analysis.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, Nr. 10 (Mai).
http://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106141,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9141963/ (zugegriffen: 27. Juni 2023).
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Liu, Ye. 2021. As the Two-Child Policy Beckons: Work–Family Conflicts, Gender Strategies and Self-Worth among Women from the First One-Child Generation in Contemporary China:
Work, Employment and Society (16. Juni).
http://doi.org/10.1177/09500170211016944,
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09500170211016944 (zugegriffen: 8. Oktober 2021).
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Ma, Jian. 2015.
Die dunkle Straße. 1. Aufl. Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt.
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Mittler, Barbara. 2013. The One-Child Policy. In:
Demystifying China. New Understandings of Chinese History, hg. von Naomi Standen, 197–205. Lanham/Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield.
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Diese knappe Studie setzt die verkürzte Darstellung der negativen Folgen der Ein-Kind-Politik in einen breiteren Kontext. Einige weit verbreitete Vorstellungen über die Ein-Kind-Politik werden dabei widerlegt.
Mo, Yan. 2013.
Frösche. München: Hanser.
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Roman des Literaturnobelpreisträgers Mo Yan, in dem auch Abtreibungen während der Ein-Kind-Politik eine Rolle spielen.
Mo, Yan. 2013.
Frösche. München: Hanser.
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Nie, Jing-Bao. 2005.
Behind the Silence: Chinese Voices on Abortion. Lanham/Boulder/New York/London: Rowman & Littlefield.
https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780742523715/Behind-the-Silence-Chinese-Voices-on-Abortion (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Untersucht die Einstellungen in der Volksrepublik China zu Abtreibungen und argumentiert, dass - obwohl Abtreibungen in China gang und gäbe waren und sind - es auch Sichtweisen gibt, die Abtreibung als ethisch problematisch zu sehen. Kapitel 5 und 6 schildern die Erlebnisse von chinesischen Frauen und Ärzten bei der Durchführung von Abtreibungen und zeigen, welche tiefen emotionalen Wunden die Ein-Kind-Politik auf individueller Ebene hinterlassen hat.
Nie, Yilin und Robert J. Wyman. 2005. The One-Child Policy in Shanghai: Acceptance and Internalization.
Population and development review 31, Nr. 2. Population and Development Review: 313–336.
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Wissenschaftlicher Aufsatz, der ausgehend von Interviews mit Chines*innen in Shanghai die unterschiedlichen Einstellungen zur Ein-Kind-Politik in den 1980er- und den 2000er-Jahren aufzeigt.
Scharping, Thomas. 2003.
Birth control in China, 1949 - 2000: population policy and demographic development. 1. publ. Chinese worlds. London [u.a.].
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Scharping, Thomas. 2014.
Bevölkerungspolitik und demographische Entwicklung: Alte Probleme, neue Perspektiven. In:
Länderbericht China, hg. von Doris Fischer und Christoph Müller-Hofstede, 67–99. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.
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Scharping, Thomas. 2019. Abolishing the One-Child Policy: Stages, Issues and the Political Process.
The Journal of contemporary China 28, Nr. 117: 327–347.
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Gibt einen detaillierten Überblick über die verschiedenen Kritiken an der Ein-Kind-Politik seit deren Einführung und erklärt, wie es zur Abschaffung der Ein-Kind-Politik 2015 kam.
Shen, Yang. 2021.
More Than One Child: Memoirs of an illegal daughter. Übers. von Nicky Harman. Balestier Press.
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Shi-Kupfer, Kristin, Katja Drinhausen und Sophie Reiß. 2023. China Spektrum Report 03. Debatten jenseits der offiziellen Regierungslinie. Merics, 6. Juli.
https://merics.org/de/studie/debatten-ueber-chinas-globale-sicherheitsinitiative-chatgpt-und-gleichstellung-unehelicher.
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Statista. 2020a. China: gender ratio by age group.
Statista.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/282119/china-sex-ratio-by-age-group/ (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Aktuelle Daten zum Geschlechterungleichgewicht (Männerüberschuss) in China in verschiedenen Altersstufen. Statista ist ein deutsches privatwirtschaftliches Nachrichtenportal, das amtliche Statistiken sowie Daten von Markt- und Meinungsforschungsinstituten zugänglich macht. Statista bereitet Daten aus verschiedenen Quellen auf, erhebt allerdings nicht selber Daten.
Die Statistik zeigt die Anzahl der Geburten in Deutschland nach Geschlecht in den Jahren von 1991 bis 2019. Statista ist ein deutsches privatwirtschaftliches Nachrichtenportal, das amtliche Statistiken sowie Daten von Markt- und Meinungsforschungsinstituten zugänglich macht. Statista bereitet Daten aus verschiedenen Quellen auf, erhebt allerdings nicht selber Daten.
Tatlow, Didi Kirsten. 2015. Book on Family-Planning Policy Is Banned, Then Promoted, by China.
Sinosphere Blog. 4. November.
https://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/11/04/china-one-child-policy-book-fuxian-yi/ (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Zeitungsbericht über das Schicksal des chinesischen Buches "Großes Land, leeres Nest" verfasst von Yi Fuxian, einem der lautesten Kritiker der Ein-Kind-Politik.
Whyte, Martin King. 2019. China’s One Child Policy. In:
Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press, 26. Juni. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199791231-0221,
http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/view/document/obo-9780199791231/obo-9780199791231-0221.xml (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Whyte, Martin King, Wang Feng und Yong Cai. 2015. Challenging Myths About China’s One-Child Policy.
The China journal (Canberra, A.C.T.) 74, Nr. 1: 144–159.
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Ein kritischer Blick auf geläufige Interpretationen der Ein-Kind-Politik wie beispielsweise, dass es die Ein-Kind-Politik war, welche zum starken Rückgang der Geburtenraten führte. Tatsächlich ging die Geburtenrate bereits während den 1970er-Jahren durch eine Kampagne der Geburtenkontrolle enorm zurück.
Xinhua. 2006. Family planning policy prevents 400 million births. 11. September.
https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/09/content_729166.htm (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Offizielle Sicht der Volksrepublik China auf die "Erfolge" der Ein-Kind-Politik. Xinhua ("Neues China") ist die Nachrichtenagentur der VR China, die direkt von der chinesischen Regierung und der Kommunistischen Partei kontrolliert wird.
Xinhua. 2009. China’s population policy helps slow global warming - China.org.cn. 12. Oktober.
http://www.china.org.cn/environment/Copenhagen/2009-12/10/content_19044158.htm (zugegriffen: 21. Februar 2021).
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Pressemeldung der staatlichen chinesischen Nachrichtenagentur Xinhua ("Neues China"), dass die Ein-Kind-Politik zum Kampf gegen den Klimawandel beigetragen habe.
Zhang, Jialing. 2019.
Land der Einzelkinder. Documentary, History. Chicago Media Project, Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR).
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Von Netflix produzierte Dokumentation zur Ein-Kind-Politik in China, welche vor allem die Folgen der Ein-Kind-Politik in den Blick nimmt. Einige geläufige Interpretationen wie beispielsweise, dass es die Ein-Kind-Politik war, welche zum starken Rückgang der Geburtenraten führte, werden genannt. Tatsächlich ging die Geburtenrate bereits während den 1970er-Jahren durch eine Kampagne der Geburtenkontrolle enorm zurück.
Zhou, Yun. 2019. The Dual Demands: Gender Equity and Fertility Intentions after the One-Child Policy.
The Journal of contemporary China 28, Nr. 117: 367–384.
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Analysiert basierend auf hundert Interviews mit jungen Chines*innen die Gründe, warum die meisten jungen Chines*innen kein zweites Kind haben wollen. Genannt werden vor allem der Mangel an Zeit und Geld und aus Sicht der Frauen vor allem Hindernisse auf dem Arbeitsmarkt.